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A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE 
LATIN  LANGUAGE 


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BOSTON 

DA  TE : 

1857 


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A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  LATIN 

LANGUAGE     - 


FOR  THE 


?-" 


USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


BY 


E?Af  ANDREWS  and  S.^STODDARD 


REVISED   BY 

HENRY   PREBLE      \'rv.5er 

''aSSISTAOT  professor  of  GREEK   AND   LATIN   AT  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY, 


L 


BOSTON 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 

New  York:   11  East  Seventeenth  Street 


PREFACE. 


-♦- 


Copyright,  1857, 
.        /    By  QROCKiB  &  Brewster. 

Co^'i1ghtVl886, 
By  Juua  H.  Wilson,  Ellen  A.  Andrews,  Euzabbth  C.  Ortiz,  and  Mart  Andrew? 

Copyright,  18S8, 
By  Julla  H.  Wilson,  Ellen  A.  Andrews,  Elizabeth  C.  Ortiz,  Mart  Andrews,  a.. 

Houghton,  Mxffun  &  Co. 

All  rights  reserved. 


The  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge : 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  H.  0.  Houghton  and  Company. 


Whev  I  acceded  to  the  reciuest  of  the  pubUshers  and  the 
,wners  of  the  copyright  of  Andrews  and  Stoddard's  Latin 
iOrammar,  that  I  should  revise  that  work,  I  had  no  idea  that 
'the  new  book  would  be  so  unlike  the  original.  In  the  thirty 
years,  however,  since  the  Grammar  was  last  revised,  opinions 
Lve  changed  a  good  deal  as  to  what  the  contents  of  such  a 
Ibook  should  be,  and  how  they  should  "^be  presented,  and  our 
Lowledge  of  the  Latin  language  has  made  v^ry  great  progress. 
■I  have  consequently  found  myself  driven  further  and  further 
rom  the  earlier  form  of  the  Grammar;  but  the  apprehension  I 
oiuiturally  felt  at  this  result  has  been  relieved  somewhat  by  the 
d  act  that  the  learned  authors  of  the  original  work  confess  to  a 
i.imilar  experience.  In  justification  of  my  procedure  I  cannot 
jdo  better  than  quote  the  following  words  from  their  preface :  - 

«  The  Grammar  here  presented  to  the  public  originated  in  a  de- 
sicrn,  formed  several  years  since,  of  preparing  a  new  edition  of 
Adam's  Latin  Grammar,  with  such  additions  and  corrections  as  the 
existing  state  of  classical  learning  plainly  demanded.  ^  e  had  not 
proceeded  far  in  the  execution  of  this  purpose,  before  we  were  im- 
pressed with  the  conviction,  which  our  subsequent  researches  contin- 
ually confirmed,  that  the  defects  in  that  manual  were  so  numerous 
and'of  so  fundamental  a  character  that  they  could  not  be  removed 

without  a  radical  change  in  the  plan  of  the  work Instead,  there- 

fore,  of  prosecuting  our  original  purpose,  we  at  length  determined  to 
mould  our  materials  into  a  form  corresponding  with  the  advanced 
state  of  Latin  and  Greek  philology." 

Most  of  the  old  paradigms  have  been  retained,  and  others 
have  sometimes  been  added.  In  the  case  of  the  regular  verb 
I  have  printed  the  four  conjugations  side  by  side,  because  when 
thus  placed  they  are  more  easily  seen  to  be  really  varieties  of 
one  conjugation,  and  their  forms  are  more  easily  implanted  in 
the  memory  than  when  learned  in  four  isolated  groups. 

9ni4U 


IV 


PREFACE. 


I 


I 


Many  of  the  old  examples  also  remain,  and  many  new  ones 
have  been  introduced.  Those  quoted  from  the  Latin  authors  I 
have  assigned,  when  possible,  to  their  exact  sources  ;  but  in  va- 
rious instances,  especially  among  the  examples  retained  from 
the  earlier  Grammar,  I  have  been  unable,  with  the  time  at  my 
command,  to  discover  the  precise  reference.  It  has  seemed  to 
me  best  not  to  sacrifice  instructive  examples  on  this  account, 
but  to  leave  them,  as  in  the  older  editions,  simply  accredited  to 
their  respective  authors. 

The  general  sequence  of  topics  has  not  been  greatly  altered. 
The  most  important  changes  are  the  following  :   The  sections 
treating  of  Word-Formation  have  been  gathered  into  one  place 
—  between  Inflection  and  Syntax  —  instead  of  being  distributed 
among  the  different  parts  of  speech  in  connection  with  their  in*- 
fiection.     This  treatment  of  Word-Formation   I   have  tried  to 
make  more  effective  by  giving  the  pupil,  where  it  could  be  done 
some  insight  into  the  jyrocesses  of  the  growth  of  words  rathe 
than  merely  classifying  derivatives  according  to  their  apparer. 
endings.     The  treatment  of  adverbs  (except  their  comparison) 
and  of  prepositions  and  other  particles,  as  not  properly  belong 
ing  to  Inflection,  has  been  transferred  partly  to  Word-Formation, 
partly  to  Syntax.     The  rules  of  quantity  have  been  brought  into 
the  early  part  of  the  book  instead  of  being  relegated  to  Versifica- 
tion, because  they  seem  to  me  necessary  to  a  reasonable  accuracy 
in  pronunciation,  which,  if  neglected  at  the  start,  tends  to  a  dis- 
tressing slovenliness  very  hard  to  correct  later.     While  the  rules 
of  agreement  for  adjectives  and  pronouns  remain  in  their  old 
place  at  the  beginning  of  Syntax,  I  have  postponed  the  rest  of 
the  syntax  of  such  words  till  after  the  treatment  of  the  cases,  in 
order  to  secure  a  more  natural  progression  in  the  study  of  syn- 
tactic details. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  retain  the  old  numbering  of  the 
sections,  for  the  necessary  insertion  of  new  matter  would  have 
resulted  in  exhausting  the  patience  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  by 
a  complicated  system  of  references.  The  book  has  been  divided 
only  into  sections  and  subsections,  with  occasional  notes,  the  three 
kinds  of  divisions  being  distinguished  by  type  of  different  sizes. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  main  sections  sometimes  consist  of  two  or  three  numbered 
paragraphs.  Tliis  arrangement  allows  the  most  detailed  refer- 
erence  without  the  use  of  longer  indications  than  323,  2,  h,  or 

168,  c,  Note  1.  ,  r  ^ 

In  the  matter  of  pronunciation  I  have  made  no  reference  to 
the  so-called  English  method.  The  time  seems  ripe  for  sparing 
the  teacher  the  necessity  of  choosing  between  a  system  a^jcepted 
by  the  scholarly  world  as  substantially  correct  and  one  which, 
thoucdi  still  somewhat  sheltered  by  a  conservative  tradition, 
makes  the  mastery   of    quantity   and  even  of  word-formation 

unnecessarily  difficult. 

The  third  declension  is  a  stuniUing-Uock  in  the  young  learn- 
er's progi-ess.  because  he  does  not  readily  see  any  resemblance 
between  the  nouns  there  treated,  such  as  appears  in  the  other 
Aiclensions.     This  is  due  partly  to  the  varied  aspect  of  the  con- 
sonant-stems, and  partly  to  the  mixing  of  i-stem  forms  with  con- 
sonant-stem forms.     Both  the  strict  grouping  by  stems  and  the 
division  according  to  the  foi-m  of  the  nominative  smgular  given 
in  certain  German   grammars  are  unsatisfactory,  because  the 
ffiroups  cross  each  other,  and  thus  destroy  the  unity  of  classifica- 
tion.    I  have  tried  to  meet  the  difficulty  by  grouping  the  conso- 
nant-stems simply  according  to  their  behavior  toward  the  let- 
ter s.  and  by  presenting  the   i-stems  in  a   progressive  series, 
showing  different  stages  in  the   absorption  of   consonant-stem 

forms.  .  1  T  1 

The  obscurity  which  envelops  the  subjunctive  mood  1  have 
tried  to  render  as  slightly  opaque  as  possible.  Examples  have 
been  supplied  with  rather  unusual  coinousness,  because  1  believe 
thot  the  contemplation  of  examples  is  the  surest  way  to  acquire 
a  feeling  for  the  subtle  differences  between  the  subjunctive  and 
the  indicative,  especially  in  those  uses  in  which  it  seems  to  the 
novice  as  if  the  ancients  employed  either  mood  quite  mdiffer- 

ently. 

With  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences,  my 
own  studies  have  led  me  to  views  somewhat  at  variance  with 
those  commonly  held.  My  reasons  for  the  difference,  m  its 
most  important  detail,  I  have  explained  briefly  in  a  footnote  on 


VI 


PREFACE. 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


page  382,  and  I  venture  to  trust  that  they  may  be  found  con- 
vincing. 

Throughout  the  revision  I  have  tried  to  keep  in  mind  the 
needs  of  the  beginner,  and  when  it  has  been  necessary  to  intro- 
duce the  results  of  modern  philological  research,  I  have  tried  to 
state  them  as  simply  and  definitely  as  possible.  At  the  same 
time,  I  have  endeavored  to  furnish  the  more  advanced  pupil 
with  all  that  is  essential  to  his  work  both  at  school  and  in  col- 
lege, until  the  time  when  an  exhaustive  grammar  becomes  a 
necessity  to  him.  I  have  especially  aimed  at  treating  the  more 
difficult  topics  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  clear,  while  leaving  as 
little  as  possible  to  be  unlearned  when  the  pupil's  study  becomes 
more  mature  and  scientific.  Thus,  among  many  things,  I  liave 
followed  the  growing  custom  of  German  scholars  in  abandoning 
the  character  j,  while  retaining  the  distinction  between  u  and  V. 

A  mass  of  rare  exceptions  to  rules  and  of  small  irregularities 
in  the  linguistic  usage  of  the  less  known  Latin  writers  has  been 
excluded  from  the  present  book.  Such  details  are  an  unneces- 
sary encumbrance  in  a  gi'ammar  intended  for  student  use  rather 
than  exhaustive  reference,  and  they  are  accessible  to  those  who 
need  them  in  larger  grammars  and  lexicons.  This  retrenchment 
has,  however,  failed  to  reduce  the  volume  of  the  book,  because 
of  the  improvement  in  the  size  of  the  type  which  the  pubhshera 
have  been  good  enough  to  make  for  me. 

Whatever  books  seemed  likely  to  help  me  have,  of  course, 
been  freely  brought  into  service,  but  I  may  mention,  as  of  par- 
ticularly constant  assistance,  Kiihner's  *'  Ausfuhrliche  Gram- 
matik  der  lateinischen  Sprache,"  A.  Goldbacher's  "  Lateinische 
Grammatik  fiir  Schulen,"  Allen  and  Greenough's  *'  Latin  Gram- 
mar," and  Anton  Marx's  *' Hiilfsbiichlein  fiir  die  Aussprache 
der  lateinischen  Vokale  in  positionslangen  Silben."  To  H.  J. 
Roby's  Latin  Grammar  I  am  indebted  for  many  examples  in 
illustration  of  the  uses  of  the  subjunctive,  and  to  W.  Bram- 
bach's  "  Hiilfsbuehlein  fiir  lateinische  Rechtschreibung  "  for  the 
treatment  of  prepositions  in  compounds.  Other  books  from 
which  I  have  derived  profit  will  be  found  quoted  in  the  body  of 
the  Grammar. 


I  would  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  my  friends  Professor 
F  D.  Allen  and  Mr.  A.  L.  K.  Volkmann  for  their  kindly  criti- 
cism and  valuable  suggestions,  and  to  my  friend  Professor  J.  B. 
Greenough  for  his  generous  encouragement  and  many  usetul 
hints.     I  also  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  my  indebtedness 
to  Mr.  John  Tetlow,  head-master  of  the  Girls'  Latin  and  High 
Schools  of  Boston,  and  to  Mr.  L.  C.  HuU,  of  the  LawrenceviUe 
Academy  at  LawrenceviUe,  New  Jersey,  for  their  kindness  in 
reading  my  manuscript  and  in  making  suggestions  by  which  the 
Grammar  has  profited  not  a  Utde.     In  verifying  the  references 
and  some  of  the  examples  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by  Mr.  H. 
W.  Haley  and  Mr.  F.  W.  Nicolson  of  the  graduate  department 
of  Harvard  University.  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

Cambridge,  November  3,  1888. 


*Kl> 


NOTE. 


The  following  list  of  some  of  the  most  useful  recent  works  on  subjects 
connected  with  Latin  Gi-ammar  is  given  for  the  assistance  of  tliose  who 
wish  to  carry  on  their  study  in  special  directions. 

Allen,  F.  D.  Remnants  of  Early  Latin.  Boston.  Ginu  & 
Heath.     1880. 

Brambach,  W.  Die  Neugestaltung  der  lateinischen  Orthogra- 
phie  in  ihrera  Verhiiltnis  zur  Schule.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     18G8. 

Brambach,  W.  Hulfsbuchlein  fur  lateinische  Rechtschreibung. 
Leipzig.     Teubner.     1876. 

Brugmanx,  K.  Grundriss  der  vergleichendeu  Grammatik  der 
indogermanischen  Spmehen.     Strassburg.    K.  J.  Triibuer.     1880. 

Buecheler,  F.  Grundriss  der  lateinischen  Declination  (new 
edition,  by  J.  Windekilde).     Bonn.     E.  Strauss.     1879. 

Christ,  W.  Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Rbmer.  2.  Auflage.  Leip- 
zig.   Teubner.     1879. 

CoRSSEN,  W.  Ueber  Aussprache,  Vocalismus  und  Betonung  der 
lateinischen  Sprache.     2.  Auflage.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     1868-70. 

CuRTius,  G.  Grundziige  der  griechischen  Etymologie.  5.  Auf- 
lage.    Leipzig.     Teubner.     1879. 

Translated  by  A.  S.  Wilkins  and  E.  B.  England,  and  published  by  J. 
Murray,  London. 

Delbrueck,  B.  Syntaktische  Forschungen.  Halle.  Buchhand- 
lung  des  Waisenhauses.     1871-79. 

Draeger,  a.  Historische  Syntax  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  2. 
Auflage.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     1878-81. 

Engelhardt,  M.  Die  lateinische  Konjugation  nach  den  Ergeb- 
nissen  der  Sprachvergleichung.     Berlin.     Weidmann.     1887. 

Greenough,  J.  B.  Analysis  of  the  Latin  Subjunctive.  Cam- 
bridge.    J.  Wilson  &  Son.     1870. 

Hale,  W.  G.  The  Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin  (with  supplemen- 
tary paper).     Baltimore.     I.  Friedenwald.     1887-88. 

Hale,  W.  G.  The  CMin-Constructions,  their  History  and  Func- 
tions (in  two  parts).     Ithaca.     Cornell  University.     1887-88. 

HuEBNER,  E.  Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  lateinischen 
Grammatik.     2.  Auflage.     Berlin.     Weidmann.     1880. 

KuEHNER,  R.  Ausfiihrliche  Grammatik  der  lateinischen  Sprache. 
Hannover.     Hahnsche  Buchhandlung.     1877-78. 


NOTE. 

LuEBBERT,  E.     Die  Syntax  von  Quom.     Breslau.    Hirt.     1870. 

Marx,  A.  Hulfsbuchlein  fiir  die  Aussprache  der  lateinischen  Vo- 
kale  in  positionslangen  Silben.     Berlin.     Weidmann.     1883. 

Mueller,  C.  F.  W.  Plautinische  Prosodie  (with  a  supplementary 
volume).     Berlin.     Weidmann.     1869-71. 

Mueller,  L.  De  Re  Metrica  Poetarum  Latinorum  praeter  Plau- 
tum  et  Terentium  libri  septem.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     1861. 

Neue,  F.  Formenlelire  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  2.  Auflage. 
Berlin.     Calvary.     1875-77. 

OsTHOFF,  H.  (aud  Brugmann,  K.).  Morphologische  Unter- 
rjuchungen  auf  dem  (iebiete  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen.  Leip- 
zig.    S.  Hirzel.     1878-81. 

RoBY,  H.  J.  A  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language  from  Plautus  to 
Suetonius.    5th  edition.     London  and  New  York.    Macmillan.    1887. 

Saussure,  F.  de.  Memoire  sur  le  syst^me  primitif  des  voyelles 
dans  les  langues  indo-europ^ennes.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     1879. 

Schleicher,  A.  Compendium  der  vergleichendeu  Grammatik  der 
indogermanischen  Sprachen.  4.  Auflage.  Weimar.  H.  Boehlau. 
1S76. 

SCHMALZ,  J.  H.  lateinische  Syntax  und  Stilistik.  (I  wan  Miil- 
ler's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft.  II.  B.  d)  and 
e)  ).     Ndrdlingen.     Becksche  Buchhandlung.     1885. 

Schmidt,  J.  H.  H.  Leitfaden  in  der  Rhythmik  und  Metrik  der 
classischen  Sprachen  fiir  Schulen.     Leipzig.     Vogel.    1869. 

Translated  by  J.  W.  White,  and  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

Seelmann,  E.  Die  Aussprache  des  Latein  nach  physiologisch- 
historischen  Grundsiitzen.     Heilbronn.     Henninger.     1884. 

SiEVERS,  E.  Grundziige  der  Phonetik  zur  Einfiihrung  in  das  Stu- 
dium  der  Lautlehre  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen.  Leipzig.  Breit- 
kopf  und  Hartel.     1881. 

Stolz,  F.  Lateinische  Laut-  und  Formenlehre.  (I wan  Miiller's 
Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft.  II.  B.  a)  b)  c)  ). 
Nordlingen.     Becksche  Buchhandlung.     1885. 

Vanicek,  a.  Etyraologisches  Worterbuch  der  lateinischen  Spra- 
che.    2.  Auflage.     Leipzig.     Teubner.     1881. 

U  EiL,  H.  De  Tordre  des  mots  dans  les  langues  anciennes  com- 
par^es  aux  langues  modernes.  3me  edition.  Paris.  F.  Vieweg. 
1879. 

Translated  by  C.  W.  Super,  and  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

Wordsworth,  J.  Fragments  and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin. 
Oxford.     Clarendon  Press.     1874. 


CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGE 

Introductory 1 

PflONUNCIATION        ....  1-14 

Alphabet 1-5 

Sounds  of  the  Letters  .     .  5-7 

SyUables 7-8 

Quantity 8-9 

Accent 9-10 

Enclitics  and  Proclitics     .  10-11 

Rules  of  Quantity     .     .     .  11-14 

Inflection 15-151 

Stems  and  Roots ....  15 

Phonetic  Changes    .     .     .  15-20 

Parts  of  Speech  ....  21 

Nouns 22-55 

GJender,  Number,  and 

Case 22-25 

Declension    ....  25-50 

First  Declension    .  28-29 

Second  Declension .  29-33 

Third  Declension    .  a3-47 

Case  Forms     .     .  41-43 

Gender  ...  43-45 

Fourth  Declension.  47-49 

Fifth  Declension     .  49-50 

Irregular  Nouns   .     .  51-55 

Adjectives 55-74 

First  and  Second  De- 
clension .  .  .  56-59 
Third  Declension  .  .  59-63 
Numerals  ....  63-70 
Comparison  ....  71-74 
Comparison  of  Ad- 
verbs     ....  75-76 

Pronouns 76-87 

Personal 76-77 


Demonstrative  .  .  .  77-81 
Intensive  ....  81-8.' 
Rel.,    Interrog.,    and 

Indef 82-85 

Possessive    ....  85 

Correlatives,  table  of  .  86 

Patrial  Pronouns  .     .  87 

Verbs 87-151 

Voice,  Mood     .    .    .    88-89 
Tense,  Number,  and 

Person  ....  90 

Noun  and  Adjective 

Forms   ....     90-92 

Conjugation      .     .     .  92-120 

Tense  Stems .     .     .    92-94 

Personal  Endings  .     94-95 

Sum 95-97 

Possum     ....    97-99 
The  Four  Conjuga- 
tions ....  99-117 
Remarks  on  Forms  117-119 
Periphrastic   Con- 
jugations .     .  119-120 
Stem   Formation   in 

3d  Conj.    .    .     .  120-124 
Usts  of    Verbs  ac- 
cording to  their 
Stem  Formation  124-136 
Irregular  Verbs  .     .  136-146 
Defective  Verbs       .  146-150 
Impersonal  Verbs    .  150-151 
Word-formation    .    .    .  151-184 
Simple    and     Derivative 

Words 152-175 

Compound  Wordi .     .     .  175-184 


Syntax   

The  Sentence  .  .  .  . 
Rules  of  Agreement  . 
Subject  and  Verb  .  . 
Appositives  and  Pre- 
dicate Nouns  .  . 
Adjectives  .  .  .  . 
Relative  Pronouns  . 
Constructio     ad     Sen- 


184-383 
184-186 
186-200 
186-189 

189-193 
193-195 
195-198 


sum 198-200 

The  Cases 200-246 

Nominative    ....  200 

Genitive 201-211 

Dative 211-219 

Accusative      ....  219-224 

Vocative 224-225 

Ablative 225-239 

Place  and  Time  .     .     .  239-243 
Cases    with     Preposi- 
tions     

Peculiarities  of  Usage . 

Nouns 

Adjectives      .... 

Pronouns    

Personal    and    Pos- 
sessive .... 
Reflexive  and  Inten- 
sive   

Demonstrative  .  . 
Relative  .... 
Indefinite    .... 

The  Verb 

Tenses 

The  Subjunctive  .  . 
Hortatory  .... 
Optative  .... 
Potential  .... 
Dubitative  .... 
Conditional  Clauses 
Concessive  Clauses  . 
Clauses  of  Compari- 
son   

Clauses  of  Purpose  . 
Clauses  of  Result    . 


243-246 
246-261 
246-248 
248-250 
250-261 

250-251 

251-256 
256-257 
257-258 
258-261 
261-350 
261-266 
267-332 
267-268 
268-269 
269-271 
271-272 
272-277 
277-281 

281-283 
283-285 
286-288 


288-298 


298-301 

302-304 
304-305 


305-307 

307-309 

309-316 
316-529 
316-324 


Substantive    Clauses 
with  utj  ne,  quin, 
quominus  .     .     . 
Relative  Clauses  (not 
Purpose  or  Re- 
sult)    ... 
Clauses    with    dumy 
donee,  quoad     . 
Clauses  of  Proviso  . 
Clauses    with     ante- 
quam  and  prius- 
quam    .... 
Clauses    with    post- 
quam,  ubi,  etc.  . 
Clauses     with     cum 
(quom)      .     .     . 
Indirect  Discourse    . 
lud.  Dis.  proper    . 
Indirect  Questions  324-326 
Causal        Clauses 
with        quod, 
quia,  etc.  .     .  326-328 
Implied  Ind.  Disc.  328-329 
Subjunc.    of    At- 
traction    .     .  329 
Tenses  of  the   Sub- 
junctive  .     .    .  330-332 
Imperative  Mood    .     .  332-333 

Infinitive 333-340 

As  Subject      .    .    .  334-335 
Complementary  .    .  335 

As  Object  ....  336-337 
With  dicor,    videor, 

etc 337 

Other  Uses      .     .     .  338 

Omitted 339 

Tenses  of  Infinitive  339-340 
Substantive  Clauses  .  340-341 
Participles  ....  342-345 
Gerund  and  Gerundive  345-348 

Supine 348-349 

Different  Constructions 

of  Purpose  .    .    .  350 

Adverbs 350-352 


*  •»»■' 


Xll 

CONTENTS. 

Prepositions     .     .    ,    , 

352-359 

Figures  of  Versification 

386-388 

Connectives     .... 

359-368 

The  DiflFerent  Metres 

388-400 

Copulatives     .... 

.  359-302 

Dactylic 

388-391 

Disjunctives   .... 

362-363 

Trochaic  and  Iambic 

391-397 

Adversatives       .     .     . 

3(>4-365 

Anaptiestic      .     .     .     . 

397-398 

Atqui  and  tamen      .     . 

365 

Bacchiac  and  Cretic    . 

398-399 

Illatives 

366 

Choriambie  and  Ionic  . 

399-400 

Words  for  "For".     . 

366 

Peculiarities     of     Fairly 

Quidem,  sane,  etc.  .     . 

367-^68 

Verse 

400-401 

Etiam  and  quoque   .     . 

368 

Saturnian  Verse 

402-403 

Interrogative  Particles  3G8-371 

Logaoedic  Verse     .     .     . 

403 

Double  Questions    .     . 

370-371 

Metres    of    Horace    and 

Yes  and  No    .... 

372 

Catullus      .     .     .     . 

404-411 

Interjections    .... 

372-373 

Appendix 

412-427 

Arrangement  of  Words  373-3^3 

Grammatical  Figures .     . 

412-415 

The  Period     .... 

377-379 

Modes  of  Reckoning  .     . 

416-422 

Anaphora   and    Chias- 

Time  

416-419 

mus     

379-380 

Calendar     .     .     .     . 

419 

Minor    Points   of    Or- 

Money,  Weights,   and 

der      

380-383 

Measures      .     .     . 

420-422 

Versification     .... 

'K5-411 

1 

Roman  Names  .... 

422-423 

Different  Kinds  of  Verse 

.3S4-385 

Abbreviations    .     .     .     . 

423-424 

Thesis  and  Arsis    .     .     . 

385-386 

Principal  Latin  Writers  . 

424-427 

Caesura  and  Diaeresis     . 

386 

Index 

429-453 

f 


LATIN  GRAMMAK. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

1.  Grammar  is  the  study  of  the  way  in  which  thought 
is  expressed  by  means  of  WORDS  combined  in  sentences. 

Latin  grammar  is   the   study  of   the  way  in  which 
the  Romans  thus  expressed  thought. 

2.  Grammar  is  naturally  divided  into  five  parts,  ac- 
cording to  the  point  of  view  from  which  words  are  treated, 

as  follows :  —  i   i  j 

i.  Pronunciation,  treating  of  the  letters  and  the  sounds 

of  which  words  are  composed. 

ii.  Inflection,  treating  of  the  changes  of  form  which 
words  undergo  to  show  how  they  are  related  to  e^h.  other. 

iii.  WoKD-FORMATiON,  treating  of  the  way  in  which 
words  have  grown  and  the  elements  of  which  they  con- 
sist. 

iv.  Syntax,  treating  of  the  way  in  which  words  are  put 

together  in  sentences. 

v.  Versification,  treating  of  the  way  in  which  words 
are  arranged,  according  to  the  length  of  their  syllables, 
to  form  verse. 

PRONUNCIATION  (Enuntiatio), 
Alphabet   (Elementa). 
3.  The    Latin    alphabet   consists   properly  of   twenty- 
three  letters  :  A  (pronounced  ah),  B  (bay*),  C  (kay),  D 

*  Tl.eslii^^ht  vanish  heard  in  the  sound  of  English  "ay"  does  "ot  exist 
in  Latin.     "Eh''   more  exactly  represents  the   Latin  sound,  but  *  bay, 


2  PRONUNCIATION. 

(day),  E  (ay),  F  (ef ),  G  (gay),  H  (hah),  I  (ee),  K  (kah) 
L    (el),  M  (em),  N  (en),  O  (oh),  P  (pay),  Q  (koo), 
K  (air),  S  (ess),  T  (tay),  V  (oo),  X  (ix),  a..d  two  taken 
durin"   Cicero's    life-time,  from   the   Greeks,  —  1  (u    ) 
and  Z^zeta,  pronouneed  zayta).     These  two  letters  were 
used  only  in  foreign,  especially  Greek,  words. 

a  The  Latin  alpliabet  as  it  has  con.e  down  to  us  in  inscrip- 
tions consisted  of  capital  letters  only.  There  are,  however,  in- 
dications that  the  Romans  had  for  every-day  writmg  some  sort 
of  running  liand,  and  traces  of  this  seen,  to  exist  m  the  Latin 
manuscripts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  from  which  are  denved  the 
letters  now  used  for  printing  both  Knglish  and  Latin. 

b  The  Romans  used  I  and  V  as  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
calling  them  in  the  latter  use  I  consonans  and  V  cUnoonans  re- 
spectively. Modern  usage  confines  V  to  the  consonant  use  and 
introduces  U  as  the  vowel.  It  has  also  been  the  custom  for  a 
century  or  more  to  use  the  form  J  for  I  consoruins  and  to  con- 
fine I  to  the  vowel  use,  but  the  more  common  usage  of  the  pre- 
sent day  rejects  J  and  uses  I,  as  the  Romans  .lid,  as  both  vowel 

and  consonant. 

Note     It  is  not  so  inconsistent  as  it  would  at  first  sifcht  seem  tl.ns  to 
disS*  U  and  V,  but  reject  J.     This  fom.  J  is  a  .holb'  ."odern  on 
unknown  to  even  the  latest  Romans,  .hile  a  round  form  of  V  does  occur  m 
Ae  eariy  mam^cripts,  though  no  distinction  of  vowel  and  consonant  .s  ob- 
L^d  between  it  aid  the  sharp  form.     PracticaUy  also,  the  d»t~  " 
U  and  V  is  of  much  greater  convenience  to  the  learner  than  that  of 

''"c.  K  disappeared  from  use  very  early  except  before  a  at  the 
bemnning  of  a  few  words,  as  Ka^so,  Kalendae,  Karthago,  and 
its' place  was  taken  by  C.  Even  the  words  mentioned  were 
often  spelled  with  C,  except  when  abbreviated. 

d.  C  originallv  ha.l  the  sound  of  our  g,  and  the  form  G  was 
not  developed  till  later,  when  K  had  dls.appeared,  and  confu- 
sion  arose  from  the  use  of  C  to  represent  two  sounds.  Then  the 
"kay,"  etc.,  seem  less  Ukely  to  confuse  the  pupil  than  "beh,"   "keh," 

"gheh,"  etc. 
•  I.  e.,  German  ii  or  French  u. 


J 


ALPHABET.  6 

Hew  form  G  took  the  old  sound  of  C,  and  C  kept  the  sound  of  K 
which  it  had  acquired.  In  the  abbreviation  of  certain  names 
beginning  with  G,  however,  C  was  retained,  as  C.  =  Gaius^  CN. 
zz=  GnaeuSj  etc. 

€.  X  is  equivalent  to  cs  or  gs,  and  except  in  compounds  is  al- 
ways written  for  them. 

/'.  II  and  ll  are  generally  written  (and  spoken)  as  i  and  i  re- 
spectively, even  in  compounds,  as  Vet  (for  Veil),  consili  (for 
consilll),  cdnlcio,  abiclo,*  etc.  (from  corij  ab,  etc.,  and  iacio). 
But  II  is  frequent  in  the  plural  of  common  nouns  and  adjectives. 

4.  The  alphabet  is  divided  into 

i.  Vowels  (Jlttcrae  vbcdlts)^  which  by  themselves  re- 
present full  articulate  sounds. 

ii.  Consonants  (lltterae  consonantes)^  so  called  be- 
cause to  make  articulate  sounds  they  have  to  be  uttered 
with  a  vowel. 

6.  The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.f 

6.  When  two  vowels  come  together  in  one  syllable  the 
combination  is  called  a  diphthong  (^dij)hthongus'), 

7.  The  diphtliongs  occurring  in  Latin  are  (common) 
ae,  au,  oe ;  (rare)  ei,  eu,  ui. 

a.  ei  occurs  perhaps  only  in  the  interjection  ei  (Jiei)  ;  ui  is 
almost  as  rare,  being  found  in  the  pronouns  cid  and  huic^  and  the 
interjection  hui.     In  early  Latin  ai,  oi,  and  ou  also  occur. 

8.  Occasionally  these  vowels,  instead  of  being  united 
into  a  diphthong,  have  each  its  own  syllable.  The  se- 
cond vowel  is  then  generally  marked  with  the  so-called 
diaeresis,  thus  (••)'>  ^s,  ams,  genitive  singular  of  aer 
(air),  in  distinction  from  aeH.s,  genitive  singular  of  aes 
(copper). 

*  For  the   quantity  of  the  first  vowel  in  these  compounds  see  299,  a. 

t  The  vowels  are  sometimes  classified  as  open  (a),  medial  (e  and  o), 
and  close  (i,  u,  and  y).  Furthermore,  e,  i,  and  y  are  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  SHARP  or  clear,  a,  o,  and  u  as  dull,  with  reg-ard  to  the  character 
of  their  sounds.  A  distinction  is  also  found  in  some  grammars  between  i, 
u,  and  y  as  soft  vowels,  and  a,  e,  and  O  as  hard  vowels. 


4  PRONUNCIATION. 

9    The  consonants  are  divided  into  —  ^ 

i.'  Semi-vowels  i^lmivocares)  :  f,  i  cbnsonans,  1,  m, 

n,  r,  8,  V. 

ii    Mutes  (mutae)  :  b,  c,  d,  g,  K,  P,  Q.  ^• 

iii   Double  consonants  (ntfcrae  Ju/;Ztces) :  x,  z. 

„.  h  is  pi-operly  not  a  letter  at  all,  but  only  the  s.gn  of  the 
rou""!!  breathing*  .    ,  , 

N:x..  TUo  le,  a.e  so  called.  W.^  t^rs^r^tt : ^ 
sound  without  a  vowel;  the  sem  -vowels.  ^^^^itleTL  th«  names 

mute,  and  the  vowels  in  ""-'^'"-^  .^'^;;  ' '^Tthe  names  o£  the 
of  the  serai-vowels  begin  with  the  vowel  element,  wJiUe  tii 

mutes  end  with  it.  _ 

10    The  semi-vowels  are  subdivided  mto  — 
i  Liquids  {Uquidac,  i.  e.,  smooth  sounds):  1  m,  n,  r, 
of  which  m  and  n  are  also  called  nasals  {nusalcs,  i.  e., 

nose  sounds).  i„\  .  f  i  « 

ii    Spirants  {sph-anas,  i.  e.,  breathing  sounds)  .  f,_i,  s, 
V,  of  which  s  is  also  called  a  sibilant  islbdans,  i.  e., 

hissing  sound). 

a.  The  double  consonant  z  is  also  a  spirant  and  a  sibilant. 

11.  Tlie  mutes  are  subdivided  into 

i.  Smooth  (^tenves  *)  :  <=,  k,  q,    P,    *• 

ii.  Middle  {mediae^ :  *'  J    +i^  1+ 

fiii.  Rough  or  aspirates  iasp-irUtae)  :  ch,    pb,   tn.  jy 

a    The  mutes  ph  and  th  and  the  breathing  h  are  also  spi- 
rants.    Spirants  are  sometimes  called  fbicatives. 

12   The  consonants  are  also  divided,  according  to  the 
or-an  of  speech  chiefly  used  in  uttering  them,  into 

1  Palatals  t  (paWtcdes,  i.  c.,  palate  letters):  c,  k, 
q,  g,  1,  and  n  (before  a  palatal). 

.  This  word  really  means  "fine"  or"thio."  and  was  applied  to  the 
mutes  through  a  mistaken  analogy.  >.»:„»     Tliev 

t  The  aspirates  were  not  used  until  just  before  C.cero  s  bme.  Ihey 
were  a^  fi^runded  as  the  smooth  mutes  followed  by  the  rough  breathmg. 
but  soon  became  simple  souiuls  (see  18,  ^).  ,  ^^      x 

t  Sometimes  wrongly  caUed  gutturals  (i.  e..  tliroat  letters). 


SOUNDS   OF   THE   LETTERS. 


5 


ii.  Dentals  *  (dcntdles^  i.  e.,  teeth  letters)  :  t,  d,  s,  r, 
1,  and  n  (not  before  a  palatal). 

iii.  Labials  (lahidles^  i.  e.,  lip  letters)  :  p,  b,  f,  v,  m. 

a.  X  is  a  combination  of  a  palatal,  c  or  g,  and  a  dental,  s ; 
z  is  a  combinatioQ  of  two  dentals,  d  and  s. 

13.  The  letters  are  further  distinguished,  according  to 
their  fullness  of  sound,  as 

i.  Sonants  (^so?iantes^  :  the  vowels,  and  b,  d,  g,  i,  1,  m, 
n,  r,  V,  z. 

ii.  Surds  (^surdae)  :  c,  f,  k,  p,  q,  s,  t,  x. 

14.  The  various  classifications  of  consonants  may  be 
tabulated  thus :  — 


Palatals. 

i  Smooth  (surd)        C,  k,  q 
Middle  (sonant)  g 

ABpirates  (surd)         cll 


Double 


X  (surd) 


Semi-    (  *  (sonant) 

vowels  )  L"l"'<^8  { 

(  (sonant)  (  Nasals  :      n 


/ 


Spirant-s 


Sibilants 


Z  (sonant) 
(surd) 


Labials. 

I 

ph 

f  (surd),  V  (sonant) 
m 


Sounds  of  the  Letters. 

15.  Tlie  letters  in  Latin  have  each  only  one  sound. 
The  sounds  of  the  vowels  have  each  two  grades,  the  long 
Qwdducta)  and  the  short  {correpta), 

16.  The  vowels  are  pronounced  as  follows :  — 
a  long  as  in  father^  a  short  as  in  Cuba  ; 

e  lon<r  as  in  the?/,  e  short  like  a  in  desjjerate  ;  t 
i  long  as  in  machine^  i  short  as  in  cigar  ;  f 
o  long  as  in  note,  O  short  as  in  obey  ;  % 

*  Sometimes  called  Unguals  (i.  e.,  tongne  letters). 

t  The  sounds  of  short  e  and  i  are  therefore  nearly  but  not  quite  the 
same  as  in  Enj^lish  get  and  pin, 

X  Tlie  sound  of  O  Is  particularly  hard  to  illustrate  in  English,  and  the 
examples  g-iven  are  only  approximately  correct.  The  Latin  long  O  is  a 
pure  sound,  having  no  tendency  towards  tlie  OO  sound  heard  at  the  end  of 
our  long-  O  ;  thos«e  who  have  heard  the  word  "coat"  pronounced  by  care- 
less speakers  in  New  England  can  get  therefrom  a  clear  idea  of  the  Latin 
short  o. 


6 


PRONUNCIATION. 


u  long  like  oo  in  fooiU  u  short  like  oo  in  hood  ; 
y  long  like  the  long  sound  of  French  u  or  German  u,  y 
short  like  the  short  sound  of  the  same. 
17    The  diphthongs  have  the  sounds  proiluced  by  run- 
ning together  into  one  sound  the  vowels  of  which  they  are 

composed.     Thus : 

ae  is  sounded  like  ay  =  yes;  (ai  nearly  so); 
au  is  sounded  like  ow  in  how ; 
ei  is  sounded  like  ei  in  eight ; 
oe  is  sounded  like  oi  in  coin  ;  (oi  nearly  so)  ; 
m  is  sounded  nearly  like  wee  in  sweet  ; 
eu  is  soun<led  like  eh-oo   (/.   e.,  nearly  as  m    English 
feud,  avoiding    the    tendency  to  make    a   short  i  ot 
the  e). 

a.  The  early  diphthong  ou,  having  a  sound  between  o  and  U, 
soon  passed  everywhere  into  one  or  the  other  of  these  letters. 

b.  During  the  early  en.piie  ae  and  oe  became  weaken  d  so 
as'o  resemble  long  e  in  sound,  and  were  thus  often  confused 
with  it  in  spelling. 

18.  The  consonants  are  sounded  as  in  English,  but 
C  and  g  are  always  hard,  as  in  can  and  rjet. 
B  is  always  sharp,  as  in  sin. 
t  is  always  pronounced  as  in  tent. 
V  has  the  sound  of  English  W  in  u-ant. 
i  c-onsonuns  has  the  sound  of  English  y  in  year, 
a.  When  a  consonant  is  doubled  both  letters   are  distmctly 
Bounded  ;  as  in  ITip-piter,  bel-lum,  fer-ro.  ,       .         ,      , 

T  A  ter  g.  q.  or  s.  u  if  followed  by  a  vowel  un.tes  closely 
with  these  fetters,  producing  the  sound  heard  in  Enghsh  sa,. 
guine,  queen,  snavit;,  ;  as  in  lingua,  quanan   "«'"'';"• 

But  in  the  pronoun  suns,  sua,  suum,   U  is  a  f u U  ^owel,  ex- 
cept sometimes  in  verse.     Snus  thus  has  two  syllables  « 

c.  n  before  C,  g,  k.  q.  x,  has  the  sound  heard  m  Englsh 
anchor,  anguish,  anxious  ;  as  in  anceps,  ungo,  tng^nt,  anxus 

d.  m  and  S  after  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  word  were  sounded 
feebly  ;  as  in  honum,  plenits. 


SYLLABLES.  7 

e.  n  before  s  also  had  a  feeble  sound,  producing  the  effect  of 
nasalizing  and  lengthening  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  consul, 
censor,  a  mans, 

f.  The  Romans  had  a  tendency  to  pronounce  final  d  like  t, 
and  also  b  final  or  before  s  like  p  ;  as  in  hand,  ah,  urhs. 

g.  The  aspirated  sounds  ch,  ph,  and  th,  when  first  intro- 
duced into  Latin  (about  100  B.  c),  had  the  sounds  of  kh,  ph, 
and  th  in  English  inhhorn,  vpheave,  hothouse.  Afterwards 
ph  came  to  be  pronounced  as  in  English  phantom,  and  ch 
to  have  the  sound  of  the  German  guttural  ch,  a  somewhat 
rougher  sound  tlian  English  ch  in  character,  while  the  sound 
of  th  approached  that  of  simple  t. 

h.  6  in  est  (is)  was  elided  in  prose  as  well  as  verse,  when  the 
word  before  it  ended  in  a  vowel  or  m,  unless  the  est  was  em- 
phatic.  Thus  :  magna  est  Diana  Ephesioj*um  (pronounced  ma- 
gna'st),  hoc  bellum  gerendum  est  (pronounced  gerendum'st).* 

Syllables  (Sgllabae). 

19.  Every  Latin  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has 
separate  vowels  (or  diphthongs).  Every  syllable  ends 
with  a  vowel,  so  far  as  is  allowed  by  the  following 
rules :  — 

20.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  joined  to 
the  second  vowel.     Thus :  rni-le^,  so-nus, 

21.  The  double  consonants  x  and  z,  and  combinations 
of  consonants  which  can  begin  a  Latin  (or  English)  word, 
also  mn,  are  joined  to  the  following  vowel.  Thus :  re-xity 
gaza,  l-gnd-scd,  d-plau-stre,  a-mnis. 

a.  In  Greek  words  the  Greek  usage  is  followed,  by  which 
more  combinations  of  letters  can  begin  a  word  than  in  Latin.    We 

*  As  in  all  lang-iiag-es,  many  variations  from  these  mechanical  rules  oc- 
curred in  Latin  as  pronounced  by  the  Romans.  With  the  extinction  of  the 
nation  disappeared,  of  course,  the  exact  pronunciation  of  their  language. 
The  careful  student,  however,  will  observe,  as  he  advances,  numerous  facts 
in  the  growth  of  Latin  forms,  which  shed  light  upon  the  finer  points  of 
pronunciation. 


8  •  PRONUNCIATION. 

write,  therefore,  Te^mes^^a.  c^-cmis,  etc.     Even  Pha-tnae  is 
found,  although  tn  cannot  begin  a  Greek  word. 

22  Other  combinations  of  consonants  are  separated, 
the  first  letter  being  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel-,  all  the 
others  to  the  vowel  which  follows.  Thus :  actus,  pran-di- 
urn,  in-con^sul-td,  vic-trix,  e^er-ptum,  mon-stra. 

23  Compounds  are  separated  into  their  parts.  Thus : 
ah-co,   stc-ut.       So   also   the   apparent    compounds    like 

quis-piam,  .  . 

24.  But  compounds  are  treated  like  simple  words  m 

the  two  following  instances  :  — 

a.  If  the  first  part  has  lost  an  ending.  Thus :  rrul.f/na-ni-nms 
(mdgmis  +  animus).  Um-gae-vos  {longus  -\-  aevom). 

b  If  the  second  part  would  otherwise  begin  with  a  combina- 
tion of  consonants  impossible  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  Thus: 
pror-sus  (j^rd  +  versus).  The  first  consonant  in  this  case  is 
almost  always  r. 

25.  When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  ended  with  the 
same  letter  with  which  the  second  part  began,  the  fifrst  of 
these  letters  was  dropped.  Thus :  tran.scr-ibd  (trans  + 
scribo),  dl-spicio  (dls  +  spec  id). 

Note  1      The  last  syllable  of  a  word  is  called  the  ultimate,  the  last 

but  L  the  PENULTIMATE  or  PENULT,  the  last  but   two   the   ANTEPENULTI- 
MATE  or  ANTEPENULT.  /     -      \  „« 

Note  2.  A  syllable  preceded  by  a  vowel  is  called  pure  ipura),  as  -UB 
in  deus  ;  by  a  conson^uit,  impure  {impHra),  as  -stat  in  constat. 

Nci^E  3  An  initial  syllable  ending  with  a  vowel,  and  any  other  syllable 
be^nninff  with  a  vowel,  is  called  open  ;  other  syllables  are  called  CLOSE. 
Thus  in  deus  both  syllables  are  open,  in  obstat  both  are  close. 

Quantity  (Qiiantitas), 

26  By  QUANTITY  is  meant  the  relative  time  required 
to  pronounce  a  letter  or  syllable.  Quantity  is  either  LONG 
{prddncta\  SHORT  {corrcptaX  or  COMMON  (anceps). 

a.  The  time  required  to  ])ronounce  a  short  syllable  is  called  a 
m<rra.  A  long  syllable  requires  twice  as  much  time,  or  two 
morae. 


QUANTITY.  —  ACCENT.  9 

27.  Syllables  are  long,  short,  or  common  by  nature 
(natura  prdductae,  correptae,  ancipites)  when  their  quan- 
tity is  the  same  as  that  of  the  vowel  (or  diphthong)  con- 
tained in  them.     Thus :  eadem,  consults, 

28.  A  syllable  is  long  by  position  (positione  pro- 
ducta)  when  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  or 
more  consonants  or  by  one  of  the  double  consonants. 
Thus  :  aina.ntis,  Sihster get,  entm. 

29.  But  a  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed 
by  a  mute  with  a  liquid  after  it  is  common  by  2)osition* 
unless  the  mute  belongs  to  the  first  part  of  a  compound. 
Thus  in  patris  the  first  syllable  is  common,  but  in  obldtum 
(ob  -f-  latum)  it  is  long. 

a.  In  real  Latin  words  only  1  and  r  after  a  mute  thus  make  a 
syllable  common,  but  in  Greek  words  m  and  n  also  do  so. 
Thus  the  first  syllable  in  Tecrnessa  is  common. 

Note.  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  that  short  vowels  are  always 
pronounced  short,  even  when  they  occur  in  syllables  which  are  long  or 
common. 

Accent  (Accentus), 

30.  By  ACCENT  is  meant  the  way  in  which  some  one 
syllable  of  every  word  is  uttered  to  make  it  more  promi- 
nent than  the  other  syllables. 

a.  The  Latin  accent  was  of  essentially  the  same  nature  as 
English  accent ;  that  is,  it  consisted  of  a  stress  of  voice  upon 
the  accented  syllable,  but  was  not  so  strongly  marked  as  in 
Eufrlish.  On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  tone  or  pitch  with 
which  an  accented  syllable  is  uttered  was  more  marked  in  Latin 
than  in  English,  f 


*  Tliere  are  also  a  few  cases  of  common  vowels.  The  quantity  of  these 
was  originally  between  long-  and  short,  and  so  in  poetry  they  are  sometimes 
used  as  long,  sometimes  as  short ;  in  prose  they  are  pronounced  short. 

t  The  Roman  grammarians  of  the  early  enlpire  tried  to  introduce  an 
artificial  system  of   accents  based  upon  the  Greek  distinctions  of  acute, 


10 


PRONUNCIATION. 


31.  Words  of  one  syllable  are  regarded  as  accented ; 
as,  mt',  sed,  pars. 

But  see  34-36.  ti,„  first- 

32.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  first 

syllable  ;  as,  pa'-ter,  re'-m.  accented 

33    Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accentea 

2  U  if  that  is  Ion-  (either  by  nature  or  by 

upon  the  penult  if  that  is  ion„  v  ■>  ;.™^'.„,-}, 

position),  otherwise  upon  the  antepenult ,      as,  i  ma  y  ., 
a-mdn-tis,  but  M-mi-nus,  te-ne-hrae. 

a.  In  early  Latin  the  accent  could  stand  farther  back  than 
the  antepenult. 

Enclitics  asd  Proclitics. 
34    Some  short  words  are  so  closely  connected  with 
the  wonl  before  or  after  them  that  they  have  no  accent  of 

^'ts"  Words  thus  closely  attached  to  the  word  preceding 
fhem  are  called  ENCLITICS  (e«c/;<ic«),  and  are  pined  in 
wSntwUh  the  preceding  word.  The  syllable  before  an 
r:S  in  all  casL  takes  the  accent^  Thus:  .^.  6o«.d  ^ 
rVaue,  good  and  famous  men ;  Graecane  an  Romana 
estmuUer,  is  the  woman  Greek  or  Roman  ? 

:r;.;^:rsuffl^  auacti  .  ,.0:01  to  .ren^Uen  U.. 
r  P  179  6  and  c,  and  186,  «) :  ^neU  pe  (ppe),  pse,  pte,  te. 
^1.  ll  t  encUt'ic  in  delude,  proinde,  sublrule,  etc..  thus  throw- 
inff  the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable. 

36  Proclitics  iproclitica)  are  pronounced  as  part  of 
the  foUowin^j  word,  without  affecting  the  accent  The 
chief  proclitics  are  the  negatives  and  the  prepositions  of 

belong  in  a  school  grammar.     See  Mailer     na     ^^ 

■  j.^/>.  R  •    "  Lateinische  Grammatik,     pp-  i^- n. 

tumswissenschaft ;  15. .       i^aieinisci  «  ^ 

*  For  one  or  two  classes  of  exceptions,  see  Gen.  ^°<1J'>«^ 

-ius  and  -ium,  97.  5,  a ;  certain  compounds  of  faao,  298,  b. 


RULES   OF   QUANTITY. 


11 


one  syllable.     Thus:   non  omnis  moriar,  I  shall  not  all 
die ;  ad  urhem  ecimus^  let  us  go  to  town. 

a.  Proclitics  receive  an  accent  if  emphatic  ;  so  also  the  prepo- 
sitions when  separated  from  their  nouns  ;  as,  in  Gallorurn  fines 
profectus  est,  he  set  forth  into  the  country  of  the  Gauls. 

Note.  The  accent  of  a  compound  word  of  more  than  two  syllables 
often  helps  fix  the  quantity  of  a  penultimate  vowel  in  the  simple  word  of 
two  syllables.  Thus,  the  accent  of  tnsd'nus,  cunscrVbo,  intdlegit,  fixes  the 
quantity  of  the  penult  of  sunus,  scr'ibu,  lego,  in  the  mind,  because  accent, 
which  belongs  also  to  English  words,  is  easier  to  remember  than  quantity. 

Rules  of  Quantity. 

37.  Every  vowel  is  pronounced  long  or  short,  accord- 
ing to  its  own  quantity,  without  regard  to  the  kind  of 
syllable  in  which  it  stands.  The  few  common  vowels  are 
pronounced  short  in  prose. 

Note  1.  Long  vowels  are  marked  thus  (")  in  this  grammar,  com- 
mon vowels  thus  (*) ;  short  vowels  are  left  unmarked,  except  when  the 
mark  (")  is  useful  to  contrast  them  sharply  with  a  long  vowel. 

Note  2.  Vowels  followed  by  two  or  more  consonants  (hidden  quanti- 
ties) are  treated  as  short,  when  their  quantity  has  not  been  ascertained, 
at  least  with  probability. 

38.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  before  a  diph- 
thong is  short ;  as,  e  in  mens  ;  i  in  patriae. 

a.  The  breathing  h  has  no  effect  as  regards  quantity.  Thus, 
e  in  veJw  is  short. 

b.  Exceptions :  — 

1.  i  is  long  in  dins  (for  divos). 

2.  The  first  vowel  is  common  in  Diana,  Eheu,  ohe. 
For  other  exceptions  see  146,  and  246. 

c.  Greek  words  regularly  retain  their  original  quantity ;  as, 
Aeneas,  Ixion,  heroes. 

d.  But  a  few  words  which  have  €6  in  Greek  have  e  in  Latin. 
These  are  chorea,  Malea,  gunaeceum.  So  some  have  i  in  Latin  ; 
as,  acadeniia.  Balineum  and  probably  /^Za^ea  seem  to  have 
been  always  used  with  the  penultimate  vowel  short.  These  vari- 
ations were  due  to  dialectic  forms  in  Greek. 


^2  PRONUNCIATION. 

KC.K.     l^e  Gree.  letter  a«  in  --^J^^^^^r-TtXl  ^Te, 
r       T  at;n  Iptters '  but  v  is  represented  by  y,  k  by  c,  auu  c^,  a» 
r;Srch  t^  l:i:tivel„  and  th'e  dipUtUon..  a.e  reproduced  thus :  - 

ai  by    ae, 

I  i  usuaUy,  §  rarely,  before  a  consonant, 
t'oyjg       ,1        J       "       before  a  vowel, 

„,  by  oe,  au  by  au,  .u  by  eu,  ou  byu.  _ 

39  AU  diphthougs  are  long  ;  as,  aurnm,  pSenae. 

a.  But  ae  in  prae  when  compounded  with  words  begmn.ng 
with  a  vowel  is  short ;  as,  praeaeutus. 
TWs  diphthong  is  sometimes  long  in  Statins. 

40  All  vowels  produced  by  contraction  (see  61)  are 
lont  whether  consonants  had  originally  stood  between 
them  or  not;  as,  aUus  (for  «Za««),  cogo  (for  coa.o^,  ^u- 

41  All  vowels  before  i  consonuns,  nf,  ns,  gm,  and  gn, 
are  long ;  as,  3Iuia,  Pompeius,  eius,  cuius,  amans,  tnfero, 

"^rtxleptir'ave    lu,.,us,   .uadriiugus,   Greek  words  in 
-egma,  and  some  others.  i 

42;.  All  vowels  before  nt  and  nd  are  short ;  as,  amantis, 

^T^Z'ln  nandinae,  nondum,  prendo,  the  vowel  is  long  by 

Trtther  exceptions   are  .ndecim,  ..andeeirn,  y^ndo,  .7„- 
dtiu,  and  some  Greek  proper  names  like  Epam^nondas. 
For  vowels  before  so  in  inceptive  verbs,  see  237,  a. 

43.  I  is  always  long  before  v,  except  in  nivis  and  the 

other  case-forms  of  nix,  snow.  .        ,  ;„  ^u 

44  The  quantitv  of  a  vowel  remains  the  same  in  all 
forms  of  a  given  word  and  its  derivatives,  unless  some 
special  cause  comes  in  to  change  it. 

a.  Instances  are  — 

1    Nominatives  in -ns  from  oblique  cases  with  short  vowels ; 
^:a2lns,  but  ar^antis ;  n^ens,  but  n^entl ;  docens,  but  docentem. 


SPECIAL   RULES   OF   QUANTITY. 


13 


2.  Cases  where  the  long  vowel  of  a  simple  word  is  shortened 
in  a  derivative  because  the  accent  has  left  it ;  as,  a' eery  acerbus. 

Special  Rules. 

Final  Syllables  and  Monosyllables. 

I.  VoweU. 

45.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long ;  as,  de, 
me,  qui. 

a.  Exceptions  are  the  enclitic  particles  ne,  qtie,  ve,  ce,  pe 
ippe),  pse,  pte,  which  are  short. 

46.  Final  a,  e,  y  are  generally  short;  final  i,  o,  u  are 
almost  always  long* 

a.  Exceptions  :  — 

(1.)  Final  a  is  long  in  the  ablative  case  (see  91),  and  usually 
in  verbs  and  particles,  but  short  in  eluj  ita,  quia,  and  puta  (  = 
suppose). 

(2.)  Final  e  is  long  in  the  fifth  declension  (see  132)  and  in 
the  imperative  of  the  second  conjugation  (see  222)  ;  also  in 
most  adverbs,  but  short  in  be7ie,  inale,  saepe,  inferne,  superne, 
and  words  like/aci/e,  temere  (really  neut  adj.). 

(3.)   Final  i  is  common  in  mihl^  tibt  db'i,  ibi,  ubi. 

(4.)  Final  o  is  short  in  im7no,  cito,  lllco,  duo,  and  generally  in 
ego,  homd.     It  is  common  in  modo,  but  short  in  its  compounds. 

A  few  other  exception.s  will  be  found  in  their  appropriate  places  later. 
(Cf.  62,  c,  94,  115,  124,  158.) 

n.  Consonants. 

47.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a 
consonant  are  long ;  as,  .so/,  2)clr, 

a.  But  cor,  f el,  inel,  os  (ossis),  vlr,  and  probably  vas  (vadis) 
are  short ;  also  those  in  -aJ  and  -il,  except  sal. 

48.  Other  words  of  one  syllable  and  all  final  syllables 
are  short  if  they  end  in  any  consonant  except  c  or  s. 

*  The  enclitic  particles  given  in  45,  a,  may  be  regarded  as  falling  under 
this  rule,  since  they  are  never  used  alone. 


14 


PRONUNCIATION. 


a.  The  following,  however,  are  long :  en,  rwn,  qtim,  sin,  cur, 
lien,  Hlbtr,  and  Greek  nouns  like  aer,  aether,  etc. 

For  other  exceptions  see  93,  d,  94,  97,  7,  98,  a,  124,  and  125. 

49.  :^lonosyllables  and  final  syllables  in  -c  are  long. 

a.  But  nee,  fac,  donee  are   short  always,  the  pronouns  hic 
and  (if  nominative  or  accusative)  hSc  sometimes. 

50.  Monosyllables  and  final  syllables  in  -as,  -es,  -os  are 
long,  those  in  -is,  -us,  -ys  are  short. 

a.  Exceptions  :  — 

(1.)  as  is  short  in  anas,  duck. 

(2.)  es  is  short  in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  -es  (genitive  -itis, 
^tls,  or  -idls)  (see  102),  and  in  the  plural  of  Greek  nouns  of 
the  third  declension  (see  124). 

(3.)  OS  is  short  in  compos,  impos,  and  the  compounds  of  as 
(ossis) ;  also  in  the  singular  of  the  second  declension   (see  96). 

(4  )  is  and  us  are  long  in  the  plural  of  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  pronouns  (see  91,  95,  108,  143,  155,  4,  178,  180). 

(5.)  is  is  also  long  in  the  present  of  the  fourth  conjugation 
(see  222),  and  in  the  .verb  forms  /7s,  is,  sJs,  vis,  veils,  and 

their  compounds. 

(6.)  us  is  also  long  in  the  genitive  singular  of  the  fourth  de- 
clension (see  126),  and  in  the  nominative  singular  of  nouns 
whose  genitive  ends  in  -fttis,  -udis,  or  -uris. 

For  other  exceptions  see  94,  98,  101,  124,  125,  215,  and  429. 

51.  Perfects  and  supines  of  two  syllables  (see  233  fP.) 
have  the  penultimate  vowel  long  if  only  a  single  consonant 
follows  it;  as,  vem.fugh  votum, 

a.  Except  bibl,  dedl,fidl,  scidl,  steti,  stUl.  tidl ;  and  citum. 
datum,  itum,  litum,  quitum,  ratum,  mtum,  satum,  sUum,  sta- 

turn. 

52.  The  antepenultimate  vowel  is  short  in  verbs  in  -i5 
of  the  third  conjugation  (see  230,/)  ;  as,  capio,  facia, 

53  Compound  words  usually  retain  the  quantity  of 
their  parts  even  when  vowels  are  changed  in  composition. 


INFLECTION.  —  STEMS   AND   ROOTS. 


15 


INFLECTION  (Flexw). 
Introductory. 

Stems  and  Roots. 

54.  Words  consist  of   two  parts,  the    stem  and  the 

ENDING. 

55.  (1.)  The  STEM  belongs  to  all  the  forms  of  the  word 
and  expresses  the  meaning  in  a  (jeneral  way  only. 

(2.)  The  ENDING  indicates  the  grammatical  relations  of 
the  word  (gender,  case,  person,  etc.),  and  thus  shows  how 
the  meaning  is  applied  in  particular  instances. 

Thus,  the  word  vox  (voice)  consists  of  a  stem  voc-  and 
an  ending  -s  ;  the  ending  is  changed  to  express  different 
applications  of  the  idea  "  voice ; "  as,  vocww?,  of  voices, 
\()ce,  with  a  voice. 

5Q.  Stems  themselves  consist  of  two  parts,  a  simple 
form  called  the  ROOT  and  an  addition  called  a  SUFFIX. 

57.  The  ROOT  is  the  part  which  belongs  to  all  the 
words  of  any  one  group,  and  expresses  the  meaning  in  a 
still  more  general  way  than  the  stem. 

Thus,  the  verb  ago,  the  adjective  agilis,  and  the  noun 
agitatio  have  the  common  root  ag-. 
Note.  Roots  are  often  indicated  thus  :  Vag. 

a.  Some  roots  are  used  as  stems  without  taking  any  suffix, 
and  some  nouns  add  no  ending  to  the  stem  in  the  nominative 
case.* 

Phonetic  Changes. 

Note.  In  the  formation  and  growth  of  words  various  changes  of  letters 
take  place  as  the  parts  of  the  word  are  put  together.     These  changes  are 

*  These  are  survivals  from  the  earlier  periods  of  language.  At  first 
there  were  only  roots,  the  suffixes  and  other  endings  being  themselves 
inde})€ndent  roots.  Then  two  roots  (later  more)  were  united  together 
and  presently  coalesced  into  a  single  form  (stem  period).  Finally  the 
inflectional  endings  became  differentiated  from  other  suffixes,  and  thus 
words,  as  we  know  them,  were  developed.  All  word-formation  is  thus 
in  reality  composition . 


16 


INFLECTION. 


the  result  of  an  effort  to  make  a  combination  of  sounds  (  )  easy  to  pro- 
found o  (2)  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than  the  original  eomb.nat.on. 
Tthe  first  ease  the  change  is  caUed  Phonetic  Decay;  m  the  second, 
Euphonic  Change. 

Vowel  Changes. 

58.  The  Latin  vowels  are  produced  chiefly  with  the 
lips  and  palate,  as  follows  :  — 

a  is  produced  by  keeping  both  lips  and  palate  wide  open. 

o  is  produced  by  contracting  the  lips  somewhat. 

U  is  produced  by  contracting  the  lips  as  much  as  possible. 

e  is  produced  by  contracting  the  palate  somewhat. 

i  is  pro.luced  by  contracting  the  palate  as  much  as  possible. 

y  is  produced  by  contracting  both  lips  and  palate  as  much  as 

possible. 

69  Vowels,  especially  when  short,  tend  to  flatten  from 
a  throu-h  o  to  u  or  to  weaken  from  a  through  e  to  i. 
Sometimes  also  they  change  from  o  or  u  across  to  e  or  i, 


as  in  the  following  figure :  — 


Thus : — 


salto     but   exsulto. 
servos  and  servns. 
factus  but   infectus. 


capio     but   incipio. 
nomen  but   nominis. 
voster    and  vester. 


a.  Certain  consonants  have  a  special  effect  upon  the  vowel 
before  them.  Thus,  a  vowel  before  1  tends  to  become  u,  before 
r  to  become  e.     Cf .  epistula  for  epistola,  verto  for  vorto,  peiero 

for  perinro. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  U  was  avoided  after  V  until  about  the 
end  of  the  classical  period.  Therefore  we  find  forms  like 
servos,  volgm,  volt,  in  the  time  of  Cicero  and  Caesar,  though  a 
similar  o  after  other  consonants  had  changed  to  u,  as  m  ficit^y 
multiim,  vehunt. 


INTRODUCTORY.  —  VOWEL   CHANGES. 


17 


c.  So  after  u  this  o  was  retained  longer  than  elsewhere,  or 
else  cu  was  written  for  quo.  Thus,  while  in  Plautus  and 
Terence  we  have  equos  and  quom  beside  multum,  we  find  later 
ecus  beside  equus,  and  cum  always,  never  quum.  On  the  other 
hand,  suus,  tutis,  etc.,  are  the  classical  forms. 

d.  u  in  words  like  lubet,  aestunw,  and  in  superlatives  (espe- 
cially after  t  and  s)  was  retained  till  Cicero's  time,  instead  of 
becoming  i  as  in  other  similar  cases.  Thus :  mdxumus,  ojjtumus, 
beside  pulcheri'imus. 

60.  The  diphthongs  are  sometimes  weakened  to  single 
long  vowels,  especially  in  composition.  Then  ae  becomes 
i,  oe  becomes  u,  au  becomes  6  or  u.     Thus :  — 

quaero    but  conqulro.  plaudo  but  explodo. 

moenia  but  munio.  claudo   but  includo. 

61.  Two  vowels  coming  together  are  often  contracted 
into  one  long  vowel.  The  first  vowel  then  usually  pre- 
vails, but  o  prevails  over  tlie  weaker  vowels  u,  e,  i,  whether 
before  or  after  them.     Thus  we  have  — 

malo         for    mri(v)()lo.  debeo  from  de-habeo. 

amasti     for    amri(v)isti.  nolo       for    ne(v)olo. 

amarunt  for    ama(v)erunt.         iiinior   for    iu(v)enior. 
ndrunt     for    nd(v)erunt.  friictus  for    fructuis. 

cogo       from  co(m)-ago.  bigae     for    bi-(i)ugae. 

sTrim  for  sT(v)erim. 

62.  Vowels  originally  long  had  in  many  cases  been 
shortened  in  classical  times,  especially  vowels  in  final 
syllables  (cf.  46-50). 

a.  Thus,  final  a  in  the  nominative  of  tlie  first  declension  was 
originally  long. 

b.  Also  many  final  syllables  in  -1,  -r,  -t,  -m.  Cf.  calcar, 
honory  amat,  amem,  beside  calcaris,  honoris,  amatis,  amemus, 
etc. 

c.  Nouns  and  verbs  in  -o  remained  long  generally  through  the 
classical  period,  but  gradually  shortened  in  the  time  of  the  em- 
pire.    So  sermOi  later  semto  ;  ajno,  later  amo,  etc. 


18 


INFLECTION. 


63.  The  weaker  vowels  (e  and  i)  were  often  dropped ; 
the  stronger  vowels  (a,  o,  u)  occasionally. 

i.  In  the  middle  of  a  word  {syncope)  :  — 

dextra  from  dextera.  nauta  from  nuvita. 

vinclum  fro77i  vinculum. 

ii.  At  the  end  of  a  word  (^apocope)  :  — 

ut  from  uti.  neu  from  neve. 

64.  Between  consonants  hard  to  pronounce  together  a 
parasitic  vowel  (e  or  u)  was  sometimes  developed,  espe- 
ciallv  in  foreign  names.     Thus :  — 

ager  from  stem  agro-.  Alcumena  for  Aknuna. 

Consonant  Changes. 
The  commonest  consonant  changes  are  as  follows :  — 

65.  A  consonant  before  1,  r,  or  s  is  often  assimilated. 

Thus : — 

puella  for  puer(u)la.  parrlcida  for  patiiclda. 

pressi  for  prenisT. 

66.  Sometimes     the     assimilation     is     only    partial. 

Thus : — 

i.  b  before  s  or  t  becomes  p  ;  as  :  — 

scrips!  for  scrlbsl.  scriptum  for  scribtura. 

ii.  g  before  t  becomes  c ;  as  :  — 

actus  for  agtus. 

For  exceptions  see  101;  a,  and  690,  1. 

iii.  c  before  a  liquid  becomes  g  ;  as  :  — 

s^gmentum  for  secmentum. 
p  and  t  sometimes  thus  hecome  b  and  d. 
iv.  d,  and  sometimes  t  before  t,  become  s ;  as :  — 

claustrum  for  elaudtruni. 
V.  m  before  a  palatal  or  dental  becomes  n  ;  as  :  — 
tunc  for  tumc(e).  eundem  frr  eumilem. 


INTRODUCTORY.  —  CONSONANT  CHANGES. 


19 


In  loose  compounds  m  remains ;  cf.  numquam^  etc. 
vi.  A  labial  mute  before  n  becomes  m  ;  as  :  — 

somnum  for  sopnum. 
So  n  before  a  labial  nuite  or  m  becomes  m  ;  as  :  — 

imbellis/or  inbellis. 
vii.  c  and  g  unite  with  a  following  s  to  make  x ;  as :  — 
duxybr  dues.  rex^br  regs. 

67.  s  between  two  vowels  or  before  m  or  n  becomes  r  ; 
as :  — 

eram  for  esani.  cf .  generis  from  genus, 

veternus  for  vetusnus  (cf.  59,  a), 

68.  V  before  a  consonant  becomes  u,  and  then  if  pre- 
ceded by  a  forms  the  diphthong  au.     Thus  :  — 

solutus  for  solvtus.  cautus  for  cavtus. 

Cf.  63,  i. 

69.  Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped  (elision), 
i.  Rarely  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  as :  — 

nosco  for  gnosco.  latum  for  tlatum. 

nutus  for  gnatus.  hs        for  stlis. 

ii.  In  the  middle  of  a  word,  the  preceding  vowel  being 
then  generally  lengthened.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  c  and  g  between  a  liquid  and  a  following  s  or  t; 
as:  — 

sparsi  for  spargsT,  cf.  spargo. 
or  before  m  or  n  ;  as  :  — 

iumentum  for  iugmentum,  cf.  iugo. 
luna  for  liicna,  cf.  luceo. 

(2.)  d  and  t  before  s  and  sometimes  before  other  let- 
ters, as :  — 

pes      for  peds,  cf.  gen.  pedis.       ramus  for  radmus,  cf.  radix, 
clausl/or  claudsl,  cf.  claudo.        suavis/or  suadvis,  cf.  suadeo. 
For  exceptions  see  66,  iv. 
(3.)  n  before  s,  unless  t  has  already  fallen  out,  as :  — 


20 


INFLECTION, 


sanguis  for  sangulns.  vicesimus  for  vTcensimus. 

furmosus  for  formonsus. 
hut  mons    for  monts,    cf  geiu  montis. 

amuns  for  amants,  cf  gen.  amantis,  etc. 

a.  In  Greek  words,  nt  faU  out  as  in  the  original ;  as,  elephas, 
elephant  Is. 

(4.)  i  cdnsonuns  before  a  vowel  i  (cf .  3,/)  ;  as :  — 

plebel  for  plebeil.  abicio  for  abiicif),  etc. 

(5.)  r  occasionally  and  s  often ;  as ;  — 

peiero  far  periuro.  iudex  /o?^  iusdex. 

tredecim  for  tresdecim. 
(6.)  V  often,  and  then  if  two  vowels  came  togetiier  con- 
traction takes  place  ;  as :  — 

iutus  for  iuvtus.       motus  for  niovtus.       aetas  for  aevitas. 
iii.  At  the  end  of  a  word,   whenever  two  consonants 
come  together,  the  second,  unless  it  be  s,  is  dropped  and 
the  preceding  vowel  not  lengthened.     Thus  :  — 

mel,  cf.  gen.  mellis.  cor,  cf.  gen.  cordis. 

In  OS  (ossis),  3  is  dropped,  as  ss  cannot  end  a  word. 

70.  A  parasitic  p  is  developed  between  m  and  a  fol- 
lowing s  or  t ;  as  :  — 

hiemps  for  hiems.      sumps!  for  sumsi.      sfimptum  for  sumtum. 

71.  Kindred   consonants   are   sometimes  interchanged. 

Thus :  — 

c  and  g,  as  trec'en'i.,  triginta. 

d  and  t,  as  set^  haul.,  beside  sed^  haud. 

t  and  s  in  many  suffixes,  as  to,  so,  turd,  surd  (cf. 
255,  1,  and  274). 

r  and  1  in  the  suffixes  rd.  Id  ;  ris,  Us,  etc.  (cf .  258,  and 

260). 

72.  The  liquids  1  and  r  sometimes  change  places  with 

the  root  vowel  accompanying  them  (metdtJiesls^.    Thus  :  — 
cerno  and  crttum.  sterno  and  stratum. 

Other  consonants  very  rarely  do  the  same. 


PARTS   OF    SPEECH. 


21 


Parts  of  Speech. 

73.  There  are  eight  classes  of  words  in  Latin,  called 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  They  are  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns, Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections.  The  last  four  are  sometimes  called  parti- 
cles. 

74.  (1.)  A  NOUN  —  also  called  substantive  —  (no- 
men)  is  the  name  of  something;  as,  Caesar;  Ilonia, 
Rome  ;  avis,  bird  ;  virtus,  virtue. 

(2.)  An  adjective  (adiecfivuni)  is  a  word  used  with  a 
noun  to  express  a  quality  of  it  or  to  describe  it  in  some 
way ;  as,  bonus,  good  ;  mdgnus,  great ;  tantus,  so  great. 

(3.)  A  PRONOUN  (2)rdnd7nen)  is  a  word  used  to  supply 
tlie  place  of  a  noun ;  as,  tu,  thou ;  ille,  he  or  that ;  qui, 
who. 

(4.)  A  VERB  {verhuni)  is  a  word  by  which  something 
is  affirmed  or  stated ;  as,  regit,  he  rules ;  eram,  I  was. 

(5.)  An  ADVERB  (advevhium)  is  a  word  used  to  limit 
or  describe  the  meaning  of  a  vepb,  adjective,  or  another 
adverb  ;  as,  he7ie,  well ;  saepe,  often. 

Note.  Observe  that  a  descriptive  adverb  has  the  same  relation  to  its 
verb  which  a  descriptive  adjective  has  to  its  noun.  Thus,  in  the  expres- 
sion "  he  acted  nol)ly;'  the  adverb  "nobly"  limits  "acted"  in  just  the 
same  way  in  which  "noble"  limits  "act"  in  the  expression  "a  noble 
act." 

(G.)  A  PREPOSITION  (praepositio)  is  a  word  which  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some 
other  word  ;  as,  cvm,  with ;  suh,  under. 

(7.)  A  CONJUNCTION  {coniunctid)  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  other  words  or  combinations  of  words ;  as,  et,  and  ; 
7iam,  for. 

(8.)  An  INTERJECTION  (iiiteriectio)  is  a  word  used  to 
make  an  exclamation  expressing  some  emotion ;  as,  ecce, 
lo  !  euge,  well  done  I 


22 


INFLECTION. 


NOUNS.  —  GENDER. NUMBER. 


23 


Note.  The  inflection  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  is  called  de- 
clension {dedinutio),  that  of  verbs,  CONJUGATION  {comugdtiO).  ISome 
adjectives  and  the  adverbs  derived  from  them  also  undergo  COMPARISON 
{comparatid)  to  show  the  degree  of  their  application.  The  oUier  parta  of 
speech  are  not  inflected. 

NOUNS. 

76.  Nouns  (iiomina)  are  divided  into  — 
i.  Abstract  (ndmina  ahstracta),  or  names  of  qualities, 
actions,  or  notions ;  as,  bonitas,  goodness ;   dtlutn,  rest ; 

fesfindtio,  haste, 
ii.  Concrete  (ndmina  concreta),  or  names  of  individual 

objects. 

76.  Concrete  nouns  are  divided  into  — 

i.  Proper  nouns  (^nbmlna  propria),  or  names  of  per- 
sons, places,  etc.  ;  as,  Caesar;  Roma,  Rome. 

ii.  Common  or  appellative  nouns  (iiomina  apjiella- 
fiva),  or  names  of  classes  of  objects;  as,  Aow5,  man; 
avis,  bird  ;  mendacium,  lie. 

iii.  Collective  nouns  {ndmina  collecflva),  or  names 
of  groups  of  objects ;  as,  exercitus,  army ;  popidus,  the 

people. 

iv.  Material  nouns  (ndmina  mciteriCdia),  or  names  of 

materials  ;  as,  Ugnum,  wood  ;  cihus,  food. 

77.  Nouns  have  gender,  number,  and  case. 

Gkxdp:r  {Geiuis). 

78.  The  gender  of  a  noun  is  its  distinction  in  regard 
to  sex.  There  are  three  genders  in  Latin,  MASCULINE 
(inascidlnum)^    FEMININE     {femimnuni),    and    NEUTER 

(neutrum), 

79.  Gender  is  of  two  kinds :  natural,  corresponding 
to  the  real  sex  of  the  object,  and  grammatical,  attached 
to  particular  word-endings  without  any  regard  to  sex. 
The  natural  gender  has  the  precedence  of  grammatical 
gender  in  nouns  denoting  male  or  female  beings. 


80.  Masculine  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns  : 

i.  Names  of  male  beings  and  of  nations. 

ii.  Names  of  rivers,  winds,  and  months. 

Note.  The  words  for  river  {Jiuvius  and  amnis),  for  wind  (ventus),  and 
ior  mouth  {mfnsis)  are  masculine,  and  the  individual  names  were  probably 
at  first  adjectives  agreeing-  with  these. 

81.  Feminine  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns : 

i.  Names  of  female  beinfrs. 

ii.  Names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees,  plants,  and 
usually  gems. 

82.  Neuter  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns  : 

i.  Names  of  the  letters  and  indeclinable  nouns. 

ii.  Words  used  merely  as  such  without  grammatical 
relations ;  as,  j^ater  est  disyllahum,  [the  word]  father  is  a 
word  of  two  syllables. 

lii.  Other  parts  of  speech,  phrases,  and  clauses  used  as 
nouns. 

83.  Some  words  are  either  masculine  or  feminine,  and 
such  are  said  to  be  of  commcm  gender  {genus  commune)  ; 
as,  hostis,  enemy ;  Ids,  ox  or  cow. 

NoTF.      ^^'].en   such   nouns   denote    things    their  gender  is  sometimes 
called  doubtjul  (anceps),  but  this  term  is  becoming  obsolete. 

84.  Some  names  of  animals  include  both  sexes,  but 
have  only  one  gender  ;  as,  passer,  m.,  sparrow ;  volpes,  f ., 
fox.  They  are  called  epicene  nouns  (epicoena  or  pro- 
miscua).  They  generally  have  the  gender  of  their  termi- 
nations. 

a.  When  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sex  in  these  nouns, 
the  word  vias  or  femina  is  put  in  apposition  with  them ;  as, 
volpes  mas,  a  male  fox. 

Number  {Xiimerns), 

85.  The  number  of  a  noun  shows  whether  one  thing 
is  meant  by  it  or  more  than  one. 


/ 


24 


INFLECTION. 


86.  There  are  two  numbers  in  Latin,  the  singular 
(^singularls},  denoting  one  object,  and  the  plural  (^)/?7- 
rdlis)^  denoting  more  than  one. 

a.  There  are  two  instances  of  a  lost  dual  number  {dmllls), 
denoting  two  objects ;  namely,  amho,  both,  and  duo,  two. 

Case  ( Casus). 

87.  The  CASE  of  a  noun  shows  its  relation  to  other 

words. 

88.  There  are  six  cases  in  Latin  :  — 

(1.)  The  NOMINATIVE  (jidminUtiviis)^  which  denotes 
the  noun  as  a  word,  and  especially  indicates  the  relation 
of  the  subject  to  a  finite  verb. 

(2.)  The  GENITIVE  {genet'lvus),  which  expresses  rela- 
tions of  possession,  origin,  and  such  others  as  are  mostly 
expressed  by  the  preposition  of  in  English. 

(3.)  The  DATIVE  {datlcf(s),  which  expresses  that  to 
or  for  which  anything  is  or  is  done. 

(4)  The  ACCUSATIVE  {accusafivtfs},  which  denotes  the 
relation  of  an  object  to  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition. 

(5.)  The  VOCATIVE  (^vocrttivus')^  which  is  used  to  ad- 
dress a  person  or  thing. 

(6.)  The  ABLATIVE  (ahlativus),  which  expresses  va- 
rious adverbial  relations,  such  as  are  expressed  in  English 
mostly  by  the  prepositions  hj,from^  ivith. 

a.  There  are  remnants  of  a  seventh  case  called  the  loc;ative 
{locdtwm),  which  was  once  used  to  denote  the  place  where  a 
thing  was  or  was  done,  but  afterwards  coalesced  in  most  of  its 
forms  with  the  ablative.      (See  93,  97,  3,  and  112.) 

b.  Indications  of  a  special  case-form  to  denote  the  means  or 
instrument  of  an  action  (instrumental  case)  also  occur,  but 
this  case  became  early  absorbed  in  the  abhitive. 

c.  The  nominative  and  vocative  are  sometimes  called  direct 
cases  (casus  recti),  i.  e.,  un inflected  cases ;  the  others  oblique 
cases  {cdsfis  oblVjul),  i.  e.,  inflected  cases. 


NOUNS. 


THE  DECLENSIONS. 


25 


d.  The  vocative  is  properly  not  a  case  at  all,  and,  except  in 
s  mie  Greek  nouns  and  in  the  singular  of  masculine  (and  femi- 
nine) nouns  of  the  second  declension  ending  in  -OS  or  -us  (see 
95),  has  always  the  same  form  as  the  nominative. 

Declension  (Declindtid). 

89.  There  are  five  declensions  in  Latin,  distiniruished 
by  the  last  letter  of  the  stems  which  they  include,  or  (in 
dictionaries)  by  the  endings  of  the  genitive  singular. 
Thus  :  — 


Dccleusiou 
I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 


Eliding  of  Genitive  Singular 

-ae 


Stem-vowel 
ft 

o  -i 

i  or  a  consonant  -is 

u  -us 

§  -ei 

a.  The  final  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  characteristic,  and 
appears  most  clearly  in  the  genitive  plural,  as  follows :  — 

Declenaion  Ending  of  Gen.  Plural 

I.  -arum 

II.  -orum 

III.  -ium  or  -um 

IV.  -uum 
V.  -erum 

90.  The  regular  endings  of  the  difiPerent  cases,  com- 
bined according  to  the  laws  of  euphonic  change,  with  the 
charact<jristics  of  the  five  declensions,  are  given  on  p.  26. 

a.  It  will  he  noticed  that  when  the  same  ending  occurs  in 
hoth  singular  and  plural,  it  usually  has  a  short  vowel  in  the  sin- 
gular and  a  long  one  in  the  plural. 

h.  It  will  be  seen  further  that  — 

(1.)  The  nominative  singular  of  masculines  and  feminines 
generally  ends  in  -s. 

(2.)  The  accusative  singular  of  masculines  and  feminines 
always  ends  in  -m. 


26 


INFLECTION. 


NOUNS.  —  THE   DECLENSIONS. 


27 


'? 


aa 
I 


Iii4  If4 


I      I 


g  2 


I 


u 

I 


13 


'? 


«? 


Ee4 
^ 


? 


.? 


•? 


a 


3 


:3 


i3 
I 


a 

3 


n 
i;3 


.3 


c 

e 
o 


o 


©  3 


a 

*3  o 
T  o 

fa 
ao  2 

'   a. 


CO 


CI 

to 

c 
(3 


rS  o 


flS 


.52 


-r? 


a 


8§ 


®  a 


;io 


"T^ 


S 


ao 


CO 


a 

3 


? 


^ 


•? 


aa 


9? 


aa 

9? 


^a 


^  2 
o  a 

;3 


CB 


a  I 

*o  a 


as 


ao 

'9 


Id 


as 
I 


O 
as 
I 


leS 


s- 


Si 

2.: 

108  - 
I 


72 


O 


<1 


.a 
< 


> 

5^ 


O 


09 

3 
loS 

n 
108 

-L' 

ao 

<5 

=y 

• 

< 

Singular. 


Plural. 


(3.)  The  vocative  is  always  like  the  nominative  except  in  the 
singular  of  second  declension  nouns  in  -os  and  -us. 

(4.)  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 

(5.)  The  genitive  plural  always  ends  in  -um,  except  occasion- 
ally in  second  declension  nouns  in  -OS  and  -om. 

(6.)  The  accusative  plural  of  masculines  and  feminines  al- 
ways ends  in  -s. 

(7.)  In  neuters  the  accusative  as  well  as  the  vocative  is  like 
the  nominative,  and  in  the  plural  these  cases  always  end  in  -a. 

(8.)  The  final  vowels  i,  o,  u  are  always  long  (cf.  46)  ;  a  is 
short  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of  tlie  first  declension ;  e  is 
short  except  in  the  fifth  declension. 

Note.  These  (apparent)  ending?  ^ew  from  the  comhination  of  a  nearly 
or  quite  uniform  set  of  case-endings  with  the  different  kinds  of  stems.  The 
original  endings  were  of  course  common  to  the  different  members  of  the 
Indo-European  parent  language.  The  earliest  forms  which  they  show  in 
Latin  are  as  follows : — 


Singular. 
M.  &F. 


N. 


M.  &F. 


Nom.  and  Voc. 

Gen 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

[Loc] 


-m 


-OS 

-i 

-d 
-i 


Plural. 


-sum 
-bus 

-bus 
-is 


-a 


Most  of  the  development  from  these  endings  to  the  common  endings  met 
in  literature  is  easy  to  trace  by  the  rules  of  euphonic  change  given  above 
(58-72).  A  few  points,  however,  need  further  mention.  The  -s  had 
dropped  from  the  nominative  of  the  first  declension,  and  the  -d  of  the  ab- 
lative had  almost  disappeared,  when  literature  began.  This  -d  belonged 
only  to  a-,  0-,  and  i-  st«ms.  The  ablative  of  consonamt  and  U-  stenLS  came 
from  the  old  instrumental  case  in  e  ;  that  of  e-  stems  was  formed  later  to 
correspond  to  a-  stems.  In  the  first  declension  the  ending  of  the  geni- 
tive singular  gave  way  to  a  new  one,  -ai,  later  -ae,  which  is  very  probably 
the  locative  ending  transferred  to  the  genitive  case.  A  like  transposition 
of  the  locative  ending  took  place  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  the 
first  and  second  declensions,  -em  in  the  accusative  singular  of  consonant 
stems  is  probably  the  Latin  representative  of  an  earlier  vowel-m.  Cf. 
Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschajl,  edited  by  I  wan  Miiller, 
vol.  ii.,  Part  I.,  B.  :  "  Lateinische  Forraenlehre,"  by  J.  Stolz,  pp.  153, 
213  €t  alias. 


28 


INFLECTION. 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 

91.  The  first  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  ^.hose 
stems  end  in  -a.  The  nominative  is  the  same  as  the  stem 
with  the  vowel  shortened.     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 


Stem 

Singular, 

Norn,  musa,  a  muse. 

Gen.   musae,  of  a  muse. 

Dat.    musae,  to  a  muse. 

Ace.   musam,  a  muse. 

Voc.   musa,  thou  muse. 


musa,  a  muse, 
musa- 


Plural. 
musae,  muses, 
musarum,  of  muses, 
musis,  to  muses, 
musas,  muses, 
musae,  ye  muses. 


Abl.    musa,  from,  by,  with  a      musis,    from,    by,    with 
muse.  nmses. 

GENDER. 

92.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  regularly  femi- 

nine. 

a.  Nouns  whieli  denote  male  beings  are  masculine  ;  as,  scriha, 
clerk ;  poeta,  poet.  So  Hadria,  the  Adriatic  Sea  (properly, 
the  god  of   that  sea).     So  also  various    names   of  rivers  (cf. 

80,  ii.). 

^  CASE-FORMS. 

93.  The  locative  of  the  first  declension  ends  in  -ae  in 
the  singular  and  in  -is  (like  the  ablative^)  in  the  plural ; 
as,  llomae,  at  Rome;  Ath^ms,  at  Athens. 

a.  An  old  form  of  the  genitive  singular  in  -<7I  occurs  in  the 
poets ;  as,  aidal.     The  same  ending  is  found  in  the  dative,  but 

only  as  a  diphthong. 

b.  Like  the  stem  vowel  the  nominative  ending  in  the  first  de- 
.dension  was  originally  long,  and  the  nominative  is  sometimes 
found  with  the  final  a  long  in  early  poetry ;  as,  puella, 

c.  The  old  genitive  singular  in  -as  is  used  in  the  word  fa- 
milia,  when  combined  with  pater,  rnater,  f  lilies,  or  fUia. 
Thus  :  pater  familias,  a  householder. 


FIRST   DECLENSION.  —  GREEK   NOUNS. 


29 


d.  The  old  genitive  plural  in  -um  instead  of  -arum  is  re- 
tained in  compounds  of  cola  and  gena,  in  many  names  of  nar 
tions,  and  in  the  words  amjjJiora,  a  liquid  measure,  and 
drachma^  a  Greek  coin. 

e.  A  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  -abus  is  sometimes  found. 
This  form  is  usual  only  in  dea,  goddess,  and  filia,  daughter,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  deus,  god,  and  filius, 
son. 

f.  In  words  like  Bd'iae,  the  i  of  the  stem  is  dropped  before 
the  ending  of  the  dative  and  ablative  plural ;  as,  Bdis  for 
Bails.     (Cf.  3,  /,  and  69,  ii.,  4.) 

For  other  rare  old  case  forms,  cf.  BUcheler,  Grundriss  der  lat.  Dedi- 
nation. 

GREEK   NOUNS. 

Note.  Nouns  taken  from  the  Greek  were  latinized  to  a  greater  or  a  less 
degfree  according-  to  the  time  when  they  came  into  the  language.  The 
nouns  borrowed  early  show  more  Latin  forms,  while  those  which  came  in 
at  the  height  of  the  classical  period  retain  more  of  their  Greek  aspect. 
Often  a  Latin  form  is  the  more  common  in  prose,  Awhile  the  Greek  form  is 
preferred  by  the  poets. 

94.  Greek  nouns  in  the  first  declension  end  in  -a  or  -e 
feminine,  in  -as  or  -es  masculine.  The  Greek  forms  oc- 
cur only  in  the  singular ;  and  in  nouns  in  -a  they  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  accusative  case. 

The  declension  of  the  singular  is  as  shown  below. 
The  plural  is  like  that  of  pure  Latin  nouns. 

Nom.  Ossa  epitome  tiaras  cometes  Anchises 

Gen.    Ossae  epitomes  (-ae)  tiarae  cometae  Anchlsao 

Dat.    Ossae  epitomae(-e)  tiarae  cometae  Anchisae 

Ace.    Ossam  (-an  epitomen  tiaram  cometen  Anchisen 

or  -an)  *  (-am)  (-an)  (-am)  (-am) 

Voc.    Ossa  epitome  tiara  (-a)  cometa  Anchisa(-e) 

Abl.    Ossa  epitome  (-a)  tiara  cometa  (-e)  Anchise  (-a) 

SECOND   DECLENSION. 

95.  The  second  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in   -o.     The  nominative  ending  is  -us   (-os) 

*  The  forms  in  parentheses  are  the  less  common  ones. 


30 


INFLECTION. 


masculine    and    a   few    feminine,  -er    or  -ir  *   masculine, 
um-  (-om)  neuter.     The  declension  is  as  follows  :  — 
dominus,  master.  regnum,  kingdom, 

servos  (later  servus),  slave. 


Stem 

domino- 

servo- 

regno- 

Sin(/ular. 

Nom. 

dominus 

servos  (servus) 

regnum 

Gen. 

doinini 

servi 

regni 

D.  &  A. 

domino 

servo 

regno 

Ace. 

dominum 

servom  (servum) 

regnum 

Voe. 

domine 

serve 

regnum 

- 

Plural. 

N.  &  Y. 

domini 

servi 

regna 

Gen. 

dominorum 

servdrum 

regnorum 

D.  &  A. 

dominis 

servis 

regnis 

Ace. 

dominos 

servos 

regna 

gener,  son-in-law. 

ager,  field. 

vir,  man. 

Stem 

genero- 

agro- 
Singular. 

viro- 

N.  &V. 

gener 

ager 

vir 

Gen. 

generi 

agri 

viri 

D.  &  A. 

genero 

agro 

viro 

Ace. 

generiun 

agrum 
Plural. 

virum 

N.  &  V. 

generi 

agri 

viri 

Gen. 

generorum 

agrorum 

virorum 

D.  &  A. 

generis 

agris 

viris 

Ace. 

gener5s 

agr5s 

viros 

*  The  only  nouns  in  -ir  are   vir  (man),  and  (chiefly  in  late  Latin)  levir, 
husband's  brother. 


SECOND   DECLENSION.  —  CASE-FORMS. 


31 


EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

96.  The  following  nouns  are  — 
(1.)  Feminine :  — 

alvos,  belly.  diphthongus,  diphthong. 

ato7JiuSy  atom.  humus,  ground. 

carbasus,  flax,  sail.  vannus,  grain-fan. 

colus^  distatf. 
Also  most  names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees,  plants, 

and  gems  (cf.  81,  ii.),  with  a  few  other  comparatively  rare 
nouns. 

(2.)  Neuter:  — 

pelagiiSf  sea  ;  virus,  poison  ;  and  generally  valgus,  crowd. 

CASE-FORMS. 

97.  (1.)  Stems  in  ro-  preceded  by  a  consonant  gener- 
ally form  the  nominative  by  dropping  the  stem  vowel  o 
and  developing  a  parasitic  e  before  the  r  (see  64),  as  in 
age?'.   (Cf.  paradigm.) 

(2.)  In  the  following  nouns  the  e  belongs  to  the  stem, 
and  is  of  course  retained  through  all  the  cases,  as  in  gener. 
(Cf.  paradigm.) 

adulter,  adulterer.  picer,  boy. 

gener,  son-in-law.  socer,  father-in-law. 

Liber,  Bacchus.  vesper,  evening. 

Also  the  compounds  from  fero  and  gero  which  end  in  -fer  or 
-ger;  as,  Lucifer,  the  morning  star  {i.  e.,  light-bringer) ;  armiger, 
armor-bearer. 

(3.)  The  locative  of  the  second  declension  ends  in  -i  in 
the  singular,  and  in  -is  (like  the  ablative)  in  the  plural ; 
as,  CorintJii,  at  Corinth  ;    Vels^  at  Veii. 

(4.)  Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium  formed  the  genitive  singu- 
lar in  -i  (not  -ii)  until  about  45  B.  c.  Thus :  gladius^ 
glad'i ;  negotium^  negofi.  In  proper  names  the  single  -I 
in  the  genitive  was  retained  much  later. 


32 


INFLECTION. 


(5.)  The  vocative  singular  of  proper  names  in  -ius  and 
-ium,  and  of  the  nouns  f'dlus,  son,  and  (jenius,  guardian 
spirit,  drops  the  e.  Thus  :  Mercur'i,  /'in,  gem.  Other 
nouns  in  -ius  are  not  found  in  the  vocative  singular. 

a.  The  accent  of  these  genitives  and  vocatives  is  on  the  penult 
even  though  short ;  as,  Merciiri. 

(6.)  Deus,  god,  is  thus  declined  :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  and  V.  deus  dei,  dii,  di 

Gen.  dei  deorum,  deiim 

Dat.  and  Abl.        deo  deis,  diis,  dis 

Ace.  deum  deos 

a.  The  forms  dei^  dels  are  more  common  than  e/il,  c?u5,  cZl, 
dTis,  until  after  Cicero's  time. 

(7.)  Nouns  denoting  money,  weight,  or  meiusure  gener- 
ally retain  the  old  form  -iim  (-om)  instead  of  -5rum  in  the 
genitive  plural;  as, nummum,  of  coin;  modlum,  of  bushels. 
a.  Many  other  such  genitives  occur  in  verse ;  and  the  follow- 
ing are  sometimes  found  in  prose :  deurriy  duumvirnm,  fabrnm 
(always  when  used  with  praefectus)  ;  also  llberum  (meaning 
children),  and  socinni  when  used  of  the  Italian  allies. 
For  other  rare  old  forms,  cf.  Bucheler's  Grundriss. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 
98.  Greek  nouns  in  the  second  declension  end  in  -os, 

-OS,  or  -us  masculine  (or  feminine),  -on  neuter.      They 
are  thus  declined :  — 

Nom.  Delos     Androgeos       Orpheus  barbiton  (lyre) 

Dat.    Deli        Androgeo  (-i)  Orphei  (-os)  barbiti 

Gen.  Delo       Androgeo  Orphei  (-6)  barbito 

Ace.    Delon    Androgeo         Orphea  barbiton 

(-una)       (-on) 

Voc.    Dele       Androgeos       Orpheu  barbiton 

Abl.    Delo       Androgeo  Orpheo  barbito 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT   STEMS. 


33 


a.  The  plural  is  like  that  of  pure  Latin  nouns,  except  that  the 
nominative  sometimes  ends  in  -oe ;  as,  Adelphoe ;  and  the 
genitive  (especially  in  titles  of  books)  in  -on ;  as,  Georgicdn,  of 
the  Georgics. 

b.  Proper  names  in  -er  (Greek  -po?)  are  generally  declined 
as  pure  Latin  nouns.  Thus  :  Alexander^  Aiitipater }  gen. 
Alexandria  Antlpatr'i. 

c.  Isolated  forms,  corresponding  directly  to  the  Greek,  are  the 
neuter  plurals  (nom.  and  ace.)  pelage  (of  pelagus,  sea),  cete 
(of  cetiis,  whale),  and  Tempe  ;  the  nominative  Panthus  and 
vocative  PanthU  ;  the  genitive  MenandrU. 

d.  lesus  has  accusative  lesum,  and  in  all  other  cases  lesu. 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 

99.  The  third  declension,  unlike  the  others,  includes 

two  *  kinds  of  stems,  the  i-  stems  and  the  consonant  stems. 

It  has  also  two  u-  stems,  which  are  treated  like  consonant 

stems. 

CONSONANT  STEMS. 

100.  Consonant  stems  can  be  conveniently  studied  in 
the  following  three  groups :  — 

1.  Those  which  add  s  to  form  the  nominative  singular. 

2.  Those  which  have  no  s  in  the  nominative  singular. 

3.  Those  which  were  originally  s-  stems. 

In  all  of  these  groups  the  nominative  sometimes  has 
the  stem  vowel  varied.     (See  below.) 

Noons  AdtUng  S  in  Nominative  Singolar. 

101.  The  nominative  singular  is  formed  by  adding  s  in 
the  case  of  masculine  and  feminine  mute  stems,  of  the  two 
u-  stems,  and  of  the  only  stem  in  m-.f 

*  The  third  declension  thus  really  includes  two  declensions,  but  the  case- 
forms  for  i-  stems  and  those  for  consonant  stems  fell  together  to  such  an 
extent  as  the  langiiag^e  grew  that  it  is  best  to  combine  the  two  kinds  of 
stems  in  one  declension. 

t  This  is  the  stem  hiem-,  which  besides  adding  8  iu  the  nominative  de- 
velops a  parasitic  p.     Thus :  hiemps^  f . ,  winter,  gen.  hiemis. 


34 


INFLECTION. 


a.  A  labial  mute  (b  or  p)  remains  unclianrrecl  before  s,  a  pala- 
tal (O  or  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  X,  a  dental  (d  or  t)  disappears 
before  S.     The  two  U-  stems  lengthen  the  stem  vowel. 

b.  Four  dental  stems  also  lengthen  the  stem  vowel :  ped-, 
nom.  pes,  m.,  foot ;  abiet-,  nom.  abies,  f.,  fir-tree ;  ariet-,  nom. 
aries,  m.,  ram ;  pariet-,  nom.  paries,  m.,  wall. 

c.  Mute  stems  with  i  before  the  nmte  usually  show  e  instead 
of  i  in  the  nominative ;  as,  mUit;  nom.  m7/e5,  m.,  soldier  ;  re/nuj-, 
nom.  reinex,  m.,  oarsman.  So  also  aucup-,  nom.  auceps,  m., 
bird-catcher.  Exceptions  are  colic-,  nom.  calix,  m.,  cup  ;  lapid-, 
nom.  lapis,  m.,  stone  ;  and  Greek  stems  in  id-. 

d.  The  stem  bov-  makes  bds,  c*  ox  or  cow ;  niv-  (originally 
nirji,-)  makes  nix,  t,  snow;  coniitg-  has  a  parasitic  n  in  the 
nominative.     Thus  :  coniunx,  c,  spouse,  gen.  coniugis. 

102.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined  :  — 


forceps,  c,  rex,  m.,   lapis,  ra.,    miles,  m.,   sub,  c, 
pincers  king  stone  soldier         swine 


Stem 


N.  andV. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


forcip-         reg- 


lapid- 


milit-         au- 


Singular. 


forceps 

forcipis 

forcipi 

forclpem 

forcipe 


rSx 

rSgis 

regi 

regem 

rege 


lapis 

lapidis 

lapidi 

lapidem 

lapide 


miles 

militis 

militi 

militem 

milite 


8\ls 

suis 

sui 

suem 

sue 


Plural. 


N.  Ace.  and  V.  forcipes       reges       lapides       milites      sues 

Qgn  forcipum     regum     lapidum     militum    suum 

Dat.  and  Abl.     for6ipibus  regibus  lapidibus  militibus  subus  (suibus) 

Nonns  with  No  S  in  Nominative  Slngiilar. 

103.  Stems  in  1-,  n-,  or  r-,  and  the  few  neuters  in  t- 
(also  one  in  d-f),  add  no  s,  but  themselves  serve  as  nomi- 
natives, either  unchanged  or  with  the  following  modifica- 
tions :  — 

*  I.  e.,  common  gender. 

t  Namely,  cord-,  nom.  cor,  heart. 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT   STEMS.  35 

a.  SaU,  nom,  sal,  m.,  salt ;  lav-,  nom.  Lar,  m.,  hearth-god  ; 
and  the  Greek  stems  d'er-,  nom.  der,  m.,  air;  and  aether-, 
nom.  aetJier,  m.,  upper  air,  lengthen  the  stem  vowel.  The  stem 
calcdr-  shortens  the  vowel :  calcar,  n.,  spur. 

b.  Stems  ending  in  two  consonants  drop  the  second  (cf.  69  iii.)  ; 
as,  rnell-,  nom.  md,  n.,  honey.  Two  also  lengthen  the  vowel ; 
tact-,  nom.  lac,  n.,  milk  ;  and /arr-,  nom.yar,  n.,  spelt. 

c.  Stems  in  on-  and  those  in  din-  or  gin-  drop  the  n  and  end 
the  nominative  in  6 ;  as,  leoii^,  nom.  led,  m.,  lion ;  virgin-,  nom. 
virgo,  f.,  maiden.  So  also  turbin^,  nom.  turbo,  m.,  whirlwind ; 
and  cam-,  nom.  card,  t,  flesh.    Cf.  hoyniiir,  nom.  homo,  m.,  man. 

d.  Other  stems  in  in-  show  en  in  the  nominative ;  as,  carmin-, 
nom.  carmen,  n.,  song ;  Jiumifi-,  worn.  Jidmen,  m.,  (a  kind  of) 
priest. 

e.  Stems  in  tr-  develop  a  parasitic  e  in  the  nominative ;  as, 
pair-,  nom.  j^ater,  m.,  father ;  mdtr-,  nom.  rridter,  f.,  mother.  (Cf. 
also  Vowel  stems,  108,  b,  and  97,  1.) 

/.    The  stem   capit-  makes  capict,  n.,  head.      Greek  neuter 
stems  in  at-  drop  the  t ;  as,  poemat-,  nom.  poema,  n.,  poem. 

104.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined  :  — 

virgo,  f.,  maiden 


Stem 


consul,  m.,  consul 
consul- 


N.  &  V. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


consul 

consulis 

consul! 

consulem 

consnle 


N.  Ace.  &  V.  consules 
Gen.  consulum 

Dat.  &  Abl.  consulibus 


leo.  m.,  lion 
leon- 

Singular. 

Ie5 

leonis 

leoni 

leonem 

leone 

Plural. 

leones 

leonum 

leonibus 


virgin- 


virg5 

virginis 

virgin! 

virginem 

virgine 


virgines 

virginiun 

virginibus 


og  INFLECTION. 

nomen,  n.,  name     caput,  n.,  head     pater,  m.,  father 


Stem 

N.  &  V. 

Gen. 

Dat 

Ace. 

Abl. 


nomin- 

nomen 

n5iniiiis 

nomini 

nomen 

nomine 


N.  A.  &V.  n5mina 
Gen.  nominum 

D.  &  Ab.  nominibus 


capit- 
Singular. 

caput 

capitis 

capiti 

caput 

capite 

Plural. 

capita 

capitum 

capitibus 


patr- 

pater 

patris 

patri 

patrem 

patre 

patres 

patrum 

patribus 


stems  Originally  Ending  in  S. 

105  Of  the  many  nouns  which  originally  had  s-  stems, 
only  vas,  n.,  vase,  gen.  vasis,  retains  the  s  in  declension, 
and  this  noun  passes  in  the  plural  into  the  second  declen- 
sion  (see  paradigm,  107).  In  the  other  nouns  s  hecomes 
r  in  declension,  i,  e.,  between  two  vowels.     (Cf.  b^.) 

106.    These   nouns    show    the   following  forms   in   the 

nominative  singular:  — 

a.  Some  masculine  nouns  in  -6s  -»-'"  *t ""'""     tW  W 
ms    flower,  gen.  floris  ;  more  commonly,  however  they  have 
£  :  ^  ::;;  lovj  gen.  am.ris.     A  few  have  both  forms  ;  as 
lunuis  or  tear,  honor.     So  the  feminine  arh.,s  or  arbor,  tree, 

^\   N^S;  stems  in  or-  (orig.  OS-)  generally  have  the  nomina- 
tive in  -us;  a.,,  corpus,  body,  gen.  corp,ms.     They  f.equently 
have  the  stem  vowel  weakened  to  e  in  the  obhque  cases    as 
op,.,  work,  gen.  operh.     A  few  have  -ur  m  the  nommat.ve . 
as,  rohiLT,  strength,  gen.  rohoris. 

c.  After  the  analog>^  of  neuters  are  formed  the  mascuhnes 
lepus.  hare,  gen.  lep^h  ;  Llrp^s.  Ligm-ian,  gen.  L^g^cns  ;  and 
the  feminine  Venus,  gen.  Veneris. 

d.  The  original  s  appears  also  in  the  followmg  :  — 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  STEMS   ORIGINALLY   IN  S. 


37 


Stem 

mur- 
pur- 

ruT' 
tellilr- 

tur- 


Nom. 

mus,  c.,  mouse. 
pus,  n.,  pus. 
rUs,  n.,  country. 
tellfiSy  f.,  earth. 
tus,  n.,  frankincense. 


stem  Nom. 

aer-        cues,  n.,  copper. 
Cerer-    Ceres,  f.,  Ceres. 
crUr'      cms,  n.,  leg. 
f/Ur-       (jl'iS,  m.,  dormouse. 
iar-         iTis,  n.,  right. 
Tnar-      was,  m.,  male  bemg. 

e    A  few  masculine  stems  in  er-  have  the  nominative  in  -is, 
either  alone  or  beside  a  form  in  -er.     These  are :  — 

stem  Nom. 

ciner-  cinis,  ashes. 

pulver-  pnlvis,  dust. 

107.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined:  — 

flos,  m.,  flower      honor,  m.,  honor      pulvis,  m.,  dust 


Stem 


flor- 


N.  &  V.         flos 


Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


floris 
flori 
florem 
fldre 


N.  Ace.  &  V.  flares 
Gen.  flarum 

Dat.  &  Abl.  floribus 

corpus,  n.,  body 
Stem  corpor- 

N.Acc.&V.  corpus 
Gen.  corporis 

Dat.  corpori 

Abl.  corpore 

N.  Ace.  &  V.  corpora 
Gen.  corporum 


honor- 

Singular. 

honos ) 

honor ( 

honoris 

honor! 

honorem 

honCre 

Plural. 
honores 
honOrum 
honor  ibus 

opus,  n.,  work 
oper- 

Sinaular. 

opus 
operis 
operi 
opere 

Plural. 

opera 
operum 


Dat.  &  Abl.  corporibus        operibus 


pulver- 


pulvis 

pulveris 
pulveri 
pulverem 
pulvere 

pulveres 

pulverum 

pulveribus 

vas,  n.,  vase 
vas- 


vas 
vasis 
vasi 
vase 

vasa 

vasorum 

vasis 


38 


INFLECTION. 


I-  STEMS. 

108.  Masculine  and  feminine  i-  stems  add  s  to  form  the 
nominative.  Neuters  add  no  s,  but  show  e  instead  of  i  in 
the  nominative.  Those  in  ali-  and  ari-  drop  the  i  and 
shorten  the  a.*   Thus  : 


Stem 

sitl- 
marl- 
anifnalT' 
exempldrl- 


Nom. 

sitis,  f.,  tliirst. 

mare,  n.,  sea. 

animal,  n.,  living  thing. 

> 

exemplar,  n.,  pattern. 

a.  But  a  number  of  nouns,  chiefly  feminine,  form  the  nomina- 
tive in  -es.     The  common  ones  are  as  follows :  — 


aedes,  f.,  temple  (also  aedis). 

caedes,  f.,  bloodshed. 

eludes,  {.,  disaster. 

campuffes,  f.,  joint  (in  building). 

fames,  f.,  hunger. 

feles,  f.,  cat. 

Idbes,  f.,  ruin. 

lues,  f.,  plague. 

moles,  f.,  mass. 

nnbes,  f.,  cloud. 


proles,  f.,  offspring. 
pUhes,  f.,  youth. 
sedes,  f.,  seat. 
sordes,  f.,  dirt. 
strafes,  f.,  carnage. 
stnies,  f.,  heap. 
suboles,  f.,  offspring. 
tabes,  f.,  wasting. 
torques,  c,  necklace. 
vdtes,  c,  seer. 
vepres,  m.,  bramble. 


palumbes,  c,  wood-pigeon. 

b.  A  few  stems  in  bri-  and  tri-  drop  the  i-  and  develop  a 
parasitic  e.     (Cf.  103,  e,  and  97,  1.)     Thus:  — 

stem  Nom. 

imbri-  imbei^  m.,  shower. 

lintri-  linter,  f.,  boat. 

Note.  There  was  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  nouns  with  i-  stems  to 
pass  into  consonant  stems,  and  between  the  nouns  with  complete  i-  stem 
forms  and  those  with  complete  consonant  stem  forms  are  found  various 
words  whose  forms  show  different  stages  in  the  passage  from  the  former 
to  the  latter. 


*  Such  nouns  were  originally  neuter  adjectiveB. 


THIKD    DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT    AND    I-   STEMS.     39 


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40 


INFLECTION. 


a.  Besides  nouns  like  aetas,  the  nouns  which  have  consonant 
stems  in  the  singular  and  i-  stems  in  the  plural  are  chiefly  the 
following  monosyllables  :  — 

Nom.  stem  Gen. 

arx,  f.,  citadel  are(0-  o.rcis 

dens,  m.,  tooth  dent{iy  dentis 

dos,  f.,  dowry  ddt{i)'  dotis^ 

fons,  m.,  fountain  fotit(i)'  fontis 

fur,  m.,  thief  /"^(O"  /^^''^ 

mas,  m.,  male  mar{i)-  maris 

mdns,  ra.,  mountain  mont{i)-  monies 

nix,  f.,  snow  niv{i)-  nivis 

nox,  f.,  night  noct(iy  noctis 

pons,  m.,  bridge  pont{i)'  pontis 

strix,  f.,  screech-owl  strig{iy  strigis 

urhs,  L,  city  urh{iy  nrhis 

PECULIAR  NOUNS. 
110.  Three  nouns,  v'ls,  force,  os,  bone,  and  hos,  ox  or 
cow,  show  peculiarities  of  declension  which  are  best  seen 
when  the  nouns  are  given  in  full.     Thus :  — 

vis,  f.,  force.      os,  n.,  bone,     bos,  c,  ox  or  cow. 

Stem     T>,         -  .  oss(i)-  bov- 

Singidar, 

Nom.  &  V.  vis  OS  bos 

Gen.  vis  (rare)  ossis  bovis 

Dat.  ossi  bovi 

Ace.  vim  OS  bovem 

Abl.  vi  esse  bove 

Plural. 

N.,  A.  &  V.  vires  ossa  boves 

Gen.  virium  ossium  bourn 

Dat.  &  Abl.  viribus  ossibus  bobus  or  bubus 

111.  Other  peculiar  forms  are  as  follows  :  — 
(1.)  SeJiex,  m.,  old  person,  has  a  shorter  stem  in  the  oblique 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  REMARKS   ON   CASE-FORMS.      41 


cases   and   in   the  plural.      Thus :  gen.  senis,  dat.   sent,  ace. 
senem,  etc. 

(2.)   Card,  t,  flesh,  gen.  camis,  has  genitive  plural  carnium. 

(3.)  luppiter,  m.,  Jupiter  (Father  Jove),  has  in  the  obUque 
cases  lovis,  lovi,  lovem,  love. 

(4.)  Three  nouns  have  a  longer  stem  in  the  oblique  cases 
than  in  the  nominative.     They  are :  — 
Nom.  &  Voc.    iter,  n.,  road,    iecur,  n.,  liver.         supellex,  f.,  furniture. 


Gen. 
Dat. 


itineris        iecinoris  or  iecoris 
itineri  iecinori  or  iecori 

etc.  etc. 


supellectilis 
supellectili 
etc. 


Note  1.  Tlie  following  monosyllabic  nouns  are  not  used  in  the  genitive 
plural :  cor,  n.,  heart ;  cos,  f.,  whetstone  ;  fax,  f.,  torch  ;  faex,  f.,  dregs  ; 
lux,{.,  light;  nex,  f.,  death;  os,  n.,  mouth;  pax,  f.,  peace;  praes,  m., 
bondsman  ;  ros,  n.,  dew  ;  sal,  m. ,  salt ;  sol,  m.,  sun  ;  tus,  n.,  frankincense  ; 
vas,  m.,  voucher ;  ver,  n.,  spring. 

Note  2.  Jus,  n.,  right,  and  rus,  n.,  countrj-,  have  in  the  plural  only  the 
nominative  and  accusative  cases. 

RE!»IARKS  ON  CASE-FORMS. 

112.  The  locative  ending  of  the  third  declension  is  -i 
or  -e  for  the  singular,  -ibus  (as  in  the  ablative)  for  the 
l)lural.  Thus:  Karthdgini  or  Karthdgine,  at  Carthage  ; 
Sardihus^  at  Sardis. 

113.  The  accusative  singular  ends  in  -im  in  the  follow- 
ing words  :  — 

a.  Always  in  Greek  words,  as  Dajjhnis,  and  in  names  of 
rivers,  as  Tiheris,  and  in  — 

hurls,  plough-handle.  sites,  thirst. 

cucumis,  cucumber.  titssls,  cough. 

ravis,  hoarseness.  vis,  force. 

Also   in    adverbs  which   were  once   accusatives,  like  partim, 
amussim,  etc. 

b.  Sometimes  in  — 

febris,  fever.  turris,  tower. 

puppis,  stem.  securis,  axe. 

restis,  rope.  sementis,  a  sowing. 
And  rarely  in  several  other  words. 


42 


INFLECTION. 


114.    The   ablative   singular  ends  in  -i  in  the  follow- 


ing : 


a.  Always  in  the  words  wliich  have  only  -im  in  the  accusa- 
tive, and  in  securis. 

b.  In  certiiin  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  — 

aequrdls,  a  contemporary.        genrdis,  a  family  connection. 
annalis,  a  historical  record,     molaris,  a  mill-stone. 
aqualis.  a  wash-basin.  prlml pilar  Is,  a  military  officer. 

cdnsFilaris,  an  ex-consul.  tribTdis,  a  fellow  tribesman. 

c.  In  neuters,  except  the  followlnc: :  — 

baccar.  a  i)lant ;  iubar.  a  ray  of  light ;  nectar,  nectar  ;  and 
sometimes  (in  verse),  mare,  sea,  and  rete,  net. 

d.  Sometimes  in  the  following  :  — 

amnL%  river.  finis,  end.  ovis,  sheep. 

avis,  bird.  ignis,  fire.  pdvus,  basin. 

axis,  axle.  imber,  shower.  semeiitis,  sowing. 

b'dis,  bile.  mane,  morning.  sors,  lot. 

classis,  fleet.  messis,  harvest.  strigilis,  flesh-scraper. 

clavis,  key.  navis,  ship.  turris,  tower. 

febris,  fever. 
And  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  — 
adfinbi,  a  connection  by  marriage,    rival  is,  rival. 

bipennis,  two-edged  axe.  sapiens,  philosopher. 

canrdis,  water-pipe.  triremis,  trireme. 

familiaris,  friend.  voculis,  vowel. 

natalis,  birth-day.  aedllis,  aodile  (rarely). 

115.  The  ablative  singular  ends  in  -e  m  fames,  hunger, 
and  in  -e  in  Sonicte  and  in  most  names  of  towns  which 
end  in  -e,  as  Praeneste. 

116.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  -um  in  the  following 
nouns  (though  they  have  i-  stems)  :  — 

a.  Always  in  — 

canis,  dog  ;  iuvenis,  youth  (originally  consonant  stems). 
ambages,  riddle  ;  volucris,  bird. 


THIRD    DECLENSION.  —  GENDER. 


43 


b.  Sometimes  in  — 

apis,  bee.  sedes,  seat. 

caedes,  bloodshed.  strues,  pile. 

eludes,  disaster.  suboles,  offspring. 

mensis,  month.  vdte^,  bard. 

c.  Also  in  nouns  in  -tas ;  as,  clvitas,  gen.  plur.  clvitatum  or 
clvitatium ;  and  rarely  in  names  denoting  nationality,  in  -as, 
-atis,  or  -is,  -itis;  as,  Arplnas,  Samnls. 

117.  The  accusative  plural  in  is  is  common  with 
i-  stems,  but  -es  is  also  found  in  all  words. 

a.  In  the  nominative  plural  -is  is  very  rare.  An  old  form  in 
-els  also  occurs  in  both  accusative  and  nominative. 

Note.     For  other  old  or  rare  forms  see  Biicheler's  Grundrks. 

GENDER. 

118.  (1.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  mas- 
culine :  — 

-er,  -6s,  -or,  -os,  -o  (except  -do,  -go,  and  abstracts  and 
collectives  in  -15),  also  -n  (except  -men). 

(2.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  feminine  :  — 

-as,  -es,  -is,  -us,  -ys,  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant,  -do, 
-go,  and  abstracts  and  collectives  in  -16. 

(3.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  neuter:  — 

-a,  -e,  -i,  -y,  -c,  -1,  -t,  -men,  -ar,  -ur,  -iis. 

119.  The  most  common  exceptions  to  these  rules  are  as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  Masculine  are  — 

as,  a  piece  of  money,     mensis,  month.  pons,  bridge. 

vas,  bondsman.  orbis,  circle.  ari^s,  ram. 

a7nnL%  river.  pdnis,  bread.  paries,  wall. 

collis,  hill.  unguis,  nail.  pes,  foot. 

ensis,  sword.  dens,  tooth.  ordo,  order. 

Ignis,  fire.  fons,  spring.  sol,  sun. 

lapis,  stone.  inons,  mountain. 


44 


INFLECTION. 


TIIIKD    DECLENSION.  —  GREEK    NOUNS. 


45 


t 


(2.)  Feminine  are  — 

arbor,  tree. 
dos,  dowry. 

(3.)  Common  are  — 


seges,  crop. 
pecus*  sheep. 


bos,  OK  or  cow. 
custos,  guard. 
sacerdos^  priest  or 

priestess. 
torques,  necklace. 
vates,  bard. 
unguis,  snake. 

(4.)  Neuter  are  — 
cadaver,  corpse.         cor,  heart. 
papdver,  poppy. 
iter,  road. 
uber,  teat. 
\v~ir,  spring. 
verber,  scourge. 
aequor,  sea 


canis,  dog. 
cinis,  ashes. 
civ  is,  citizen. 
crlnis,  hair. 
finis,  end. 
funis,  rope. 
host  is,  enemy. 


iuvenis,  youth. 
pulvis,  dust. 
testis,  Vitness. 
calx,  lime. 
calx,  heel. 
mus,  mouse. 
sus,  swine. 


inguen,  grom. 
unguen,  ointment. 
crus,  leg. 
ius,  right. 
rus,  country. 
tus,  frankincense. 


aes,  copper. 
fas,  right. 
nefas,  wrong. 
vds,  vase. 
OS,  mouth. 
OS,  bone. 

Less  common  exceptions  are  as  follows :  — 

120.  Masculine  are  — 

(1.)  Greek  nouns  in  as  (<2:en.  -antis);  as,  elephds,  ele- 
phant;  also,  axis,  axle;  bilris,  plough-handle;  caulis, 
stalk  ;  cucumis,  cucumber ;  fascis,  bundle  ;  foIUs,  bel- 
lows ;  fustis,  club  ;  piscis,  fish  ;  postis,  post ;  torris,  fire- 
brand ;  vectis,  lever ;  vermis,  worm  ;  vomis,  plough-share. 

(2.)  Calix,  cup;  fornix,  arch ;  phoenix,  a  fabulous  bird; 
onyx,Vi  precious  stone;  cpnncunx,  sejMnx,  etc.;  auceps, 
bird-catcher ;  chalyhs,  steel ;  cHens,  client ;  quadrdns, 
sextrms,  etc.;  compounds  of  dens,  except  bidens,  sheep. 

(3.)  comedo,  glutton;  cardo,  hinge;  harpago,  grap- 
pling hook  ;  Sid,  salt  (sometimes  neuter  in  singular) ;  tur- 
tur,  turtle  dove  ;  vidtur,  vulture;  /awe/i,  a  kind  of  priest. 

*  Priscian  quotes  it  once  from  Ennius  as  masculine,  and  a  neuter  plural 
form  pecuda  is  found. 


(4.)  Generally,  also,  callis,  path ;  canalis,  water-pipe ; 
c/i7 ///.•*,  haunch;  cori/.s,  basket ;  6Y/i^/s,  brier  ;  ^rex,  herd  ; 
pumex^  pumice  stone ;  senex,  old  person  ;  rudens^  rope ; 
tig r is  (in  prose  ;  always  feminine  in  poetry),  tiger. 

121.  Feminine  are  linter,  boat;  merges,  sheaf;  cos, 
whetstone  ;  eos,  morning ;  card,  flesh ;  and  Greek  nouns 
in  -5,  like  echo,  echo. 

122.  Common  are  antistes,  priest;  ^?a/?///i6cs,  wood- 
pigeon  ;  cortex,  bark  ;  obex,  barrier ;  onyx  (meaning  an 
onyx  box) ;  sardonyx,  a  precious  stone ;  sandyx,  the 
color  scarlet ;  silex,  flint ;  forceps,  pincers  ;  scrobs,  ditch ; 
serpens,  serpent ;  stirps,  tree  trunk. 

123.  Neuter  are  Greek  nouns  in  -as  (genitive  -atis), 
and  in  -es ;  as,  hi2)pomanes  ;  also,  cicer,  chick-pea ;  piper, 
pepper ;  spinier,  a  kind  of  bracelet ;  tuber,  a  swelling ; 
ador,  spelt ;  marmor,  marble ;  gluten,  glue. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 

124.  Greek  nouns  in  the  third  declension  seldom  show 
Greek  forms  except  in  the  genitive  and  accusative  singu- 
lar and  accusative  plural.  Examples  of  their  declension 
are  as  follows  :  — 

heros,  m.,  hero,     lampas,  f.,  torch.      basis,  f.,  base. 


Singular. 

N.&V. 

heros 

lampas 

basis 

G. 

herois 

lampados 

basis  (-eos) 

D. 

heroi 

lampadi 

basi 

Ac. 

heroa 

lampada 

basin 

Ab. 

heroe 

lampade 
Plural. 

basi 

N.  &  V. 

heroes 

lampades 

ba*ses 

G. 

herdum 

lampaduin 

basium 

D.  &  Ab. 

herdisin 

lampadibus 

bai=5ibus 

Ac. 

heroas 

lampadas 

basis  (-eis) 

iQ 

INFLECTION. 

tigris,  c,  tiger. 

nais,  f.,  naiad. 

Singular. 

N. 

tigris 

nais 

G. 

tigris  (-idos) 

naidos 

D. 

tigri 

naidi 

Ac. 

tigrin  (-ida) 

naida 

V. 

tigris 

nais 

Ab. 

tigri  (-ide) 

naide 
PluraL 

N.  &  V. 

tigres 

naides 

G. 

tigrium 

naidum 

D.  &  Ab 

.  tigribus 

naidibus 

Ac. 

tigris  (-idas) 

naidas 

chelys 


chelyn 
chely 


Proper  Names. 

Examples  of  the  declension  of  Greek  proper  names  are 


as  toi 

lows :  — 

m. 

f. 

m. 

N. 

Socrates 

Dido 

Simois 

G. 

Sdcratis  (-i) 

Didus  (-onis) 

Simoentis 

D. 

Sdcrati 

Did5  (-oni) 

Simoenti 

Ac. 

Socratem  (-en) 

Did5  (-onem) 

Simoenta 

V. 

Socrates  (-S) 

Dido 

Simois 

Ab. 

Socrate 

Dido  (-5ne) 

Simoente 

m. 

m. 

N. 

Capys 

Daphnis 

G. 

Capyos 

Daphnidis 

D. 

Capyi 

Daphnidi 

Ac. 

Capyn 

Daphnim  (-in) 

V. 

Capy 

Daphni 

Ab. 

Capye 

Daphni 

FOURTH   DECLENSION. 


47 


Special  Formg. 

125.  (1.)  Like  Simois  are  declined  stems  in  ant-,  ent-, 
ont-,  lint- ;  as,  adamas,  gen.  adamantis ;  Xenophon^ 
gen.  Xenophontis  ;   Trapezus^  gen.  Trcqyezuntis^  etc. 

(2.)  But  some  in  ont-  are  thoroughly  latinized  and  de- 
clined like  Draco^  gen.  Dracofiis.  So  also  Agamemnon 
or  Agamemno^  but  with  short  o  in  the  stem,  Agamemno- 
7iis,  etc. 

(3.)  Stems  in  ant-  have  the  Latin  form  in  the  nomina- 
tive sometimes  as,  Atldns^  elephans;  and  also  have  a  in 
the  vocative  as,  Atla, 

(4.)  Neuters  in  -a  have  a  dative  and  ablative  plural  in 
-is  after  the  fashion  of  the  second  declension ;  as,  poema^ 
dat.  and  abl.  j)oemat~is, 

FOURTH   DECLENSION 

126.  The  fourth  declension  consists  of  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in  u-.  The  nominative  singular  ends  in  -ns 
masc.  (and  fem.),  -ti  neuter.     Thus :  — 

friictus,  m.,  fruit.  cornii,  m.,  horn. 

Stem  friictu-  cornu- 

Singitlar, 

Nom.  &  Voc.  friictus  cornti 

Gen.  friictus  corniis 

Dat.  fructui  (-ii)  cornii 

Ace.  friictum  cornii 

Abl.  friictu  cornii 


Plural. 


Nom.  &  Voc. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


friictiis 

friictuum 

friictibus 

friictiis 

friictibus 


cornua 

cornuum 

comibus 

cornua 

comibus 


48  INFLECTION. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 
127.  The  followins:  nouns  are  feminine  : 


acus,  needle. 
colus,  distaff. 
domus,  house. 
fictiSj  fig. 
Idas,  pi.  Ides. 


7naniis,  hand. 
porticiis,  gallery. 
Qmnquutrus   (pi.),  Feast  of 

Minerva. 
tribits,  tribe. 


Also  a  few  by  signification  ;  and  rarely  arcics,  bow ;  penuSj  pro- 
visions ;  specus^  cave. 

a.  Secus^  sex,  is  neuter. 

CASE-FORMS. 

128.  (1.)  Old  genitives  in  -uos  and  -uis  are  found  in 
some  words ;  as,  sendtuos  ;  frvctvis, 

(2.)  A  genitive  in  i-,  after  the  analogy  of  the  second 
declension,  is  found  in  sendfi^  and  in  early  Latin  in  a 
few  other  words. 

(3.)  A  few  datives  in  u-  occur. 

(4.)  A  contracted  genitive  plural  in  -um  is  also 
found. 

129.  The  following  nouns  retain  the  u-  of  the  stem 
(not  weakened  to  i-)*  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural. 

artuSj  limb,  dat.  and  abl.  pi.  artubus, 

partus,  birth,  *'  paHubus, 

portiis,  harbor,  "  (portid)iis). 

trlbus,  tribe,  "  tribubus. 

vera,  spit,  "  (veimbus), 

a.  All  but  partus  have  also  the  form  in  -ibus,  in  classical 
times.     With  partus  and  veru  that  is  the  commoner  form. 

b.  Words  of  two  syllables  in  -cus  have  more  commonly 
-ubus  in  the  ablative ;  as,  lacns,  lacubus. 

130.  Domus,  house,  has  two  stems,  domu-  and  domo-, 

*  Cf.  59,  and  90. 


FIFTH   DECLENSION. 


49 


and  is  declined  as  follows  (the  commoner  form  in  each 
case  is  put  first}  :  — 

domus,  f.,  house. 

domu-  and  domo- 


Stem 

Norn.  &  Voc. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


SiiKjtdar. 

domus 
domus,  domi 
domui,  domo 
domum 


Plural. 

domus 

domuum,  domorum 

dom.ibus 

domos,  domus 

domibus 


domo  (domu) 

a.  Dom't  is  used  only  as  locative,  except  in  Plautus.  A 
locative  domui  also  occurs. 

131.  Most  names  of  plants,  and  colus,  distaff,  have  also 
forms  of  the  second  declension;  jiemcs,  provisions,  has 
forms  in  both  the  second  and  third  declensions.* 

FIFTH    DECLENSION. 

132.  The  fifth  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in  §-.  The  nominative  singular  ends  in  -es. 
All  the  nouns  are  feminine  except  dies  (common  in  the 
singular,  masculine  in  the  plural)  and  meridies  (mas- 
culine).    They  are  thus  declined  :  — 


res,  thing. 

Singtilar, 

Nom.  &  Voc.  res 

Gen.  rSi 

Dat.  rSi 

Ace.  rem 

Abl.  re 


Stem  re- 

Plural. 

res 

rerum 

rebus 

res 

rebus 


*  The  fourth  declension  seems  to  have  been  an  offshoot  from  the  third. 
Cf.  genitive  forms  like  nominus,  from  nOinen,  and  senatuos,  from  senatus. 
Later,  confusion  arose  between  the  fourth  and  the  second  declensions 
through  their  similarity  in  the  nominative  singular.  Hence  forms  like 
senaii,  domorum. 


50 


INFLECTION. 


dies,  day. 
Singular. 

Nom.  &  Voc.  dies 

Gen.  diei 

Dat.  diei 

Ace.  diem 

Abl.  die 


Stem  die- 

Plural. 

dies 

dierum 

diebus 

dies 

diebus 


a.  Dies  is  as  a  rule  feminine  only  when  it  denotes  duration 
of  time  or  a  fixed  day. 

CASE-FORMS. 

133.  (1.)  Old  forms  of  both  genitive  and  dative  singu- 
lar in  -e  and  -i,  and  of  genitive  only  in  -es,  occur,  but  rarely ; 
as,  -fide,  dil,  rabies.     Fleb'i  is  common  as  a  genitive. 

(2.)  Only  res  and  dies  are  used  in  full  in  the  plural. 
The  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  plural  are  found 
in  the  following :  — 

(tries,  line  of  battle,    fades,  face.  series^  series. 

effif/iesj  effif^y.  f/lades,  ice.  species,  shape,  form. 

chivies^  overflowing,  profjenies,  offspring,   spes,  hope. 

(3.)  The  stem  vowel  is  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  da- 
tive singular  when  a  consonant  precedes  it ;  as,  rel,  from 
res,  thing ;  Jidei,  from  jides,  faith  ;  .s/^eT,  from  spes,  hope. 

a.  All  the  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  but  four  — fides,  pie- 
bes*  res,  and  spes  —  end  in  -ies,  and  all  nouns  in  -ies  are  of  this 
declension,  except  five  of  the  third  declension  —  abies,  fir  ;  aries, 
battering  ram ;  paries,  partition  wall ;  qnies  and  requies,  rest. 

b.  The  nouns  in  -ies  of  the  fifth  declension  (except  dies  and 
meridies)  generally  have,  especially  in  the  genitive  and  dative 
singular,  and  in  the  plural,  corresponding  forms  in  the  first 
declension.  Thus,  materia,  gen.  mdteriae,  beside  materies, 
gen.  materiel,  etc.f 

*  Less  common  than  the  third  declension  form  pUhs. 

t  These  nouns  in  -ies  seem  to  have  been  developed  from  the  stems  in  a- 
origrinally.  (See  Uandh.  der  Altert,  vol.  ii.,  B.,  p.  203,  §5.)  The  other  nouns 
of  the  fifth  declension  —  except  perhaps  res  —  were  probably  originally 
8-  stems  of  the  third  declension,  like  nubes.     (Cf .  108,  a,  109.) 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


51 


IRREGULAR   NOUNS. 

134.  There  are  four  classes  of  irregular  nouns,  as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  Heterogeneous  nouns  (heterogenea)^  or  such  as 
have  forms  of  different  genders. 

(2.)  IIeteroclites  (Jieterodita),  or  nouns  which  have 
forms  of  different  dedensions. 

(3.)  Defective  nouns  (de/ectwa),  or  such  as  lack 
some  of  their  parts. 

(4.)  Redundant  nouns  {abundantia)^  or  such  as  have 
more  forms  than  the  usual  number. 

135.  The  commonest  heterogeneous  nouns  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

(1.)   Masculine  in  singular,  neuter  in  plural :  — 

A  vermis,    a   certain 

lake,  plural  Averna, 

Tartarics,  the  lower 

regions, 
iociis,  jest, 

hcusj  place, 

slbiliis,  whistling, 

(2.)  Feminine  in  singular,  neuter  in  plural :  — 

carbasiis,  sail,  plural  carbasa. 

(3.)  Neuter  in  singular,  masculine  in  plural:  — 

caelum,  heaven,         plural  caeli. 

frenum,  bridle,  "      freni  and  frena. 

rostrum,  rake,  "       rdstrl,  and  more  rarely  rdstra. 

(4.)  Neuter  in  singular,  feminine  in  plural :  — 

epulum,  feast,  plural  epulae. 

balneum,  bath,  "      baZneae  and  balnea* 

7iu7idinum,  market  day,      "      nundinae. 


u 

u 

u 
u 

ii 


Tartara. 

iocl  and  ioca. 
( loci,  passages  in  books ;  topics. 
( Ioca,  places. 

slbin  and  slbila. 


52 


INFLECTION. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


63 


136.  Examples  of  heteroclites  are  as  follows  :  — 

vas,  n.,  vessel. 


vas 
vasis, 
vasi 
vase 

vasa 

vasorum 

vasis 


iugerum,  n.,  acre. 

Singular, 

Nom.  &  Ace.  iugenim 

Gen.  iugeri 

Dat.  iugera 

Abl.  iugero  and  (iugere) 

Plural. 

Nom.  &  Ace.  iugera 

Gen.  iugerum 

Dat.  &  Abl.    iugeribus  and  iugeris 

a.  Vesper,  evening,  has  also  vespera,  ace.  vesperum,  move 
rarely  vesperam,  abl.  vespers  and  vespera,  and  as  ablative  of 
time  (see  424)  generally  the  locative  from  vesperu     It  has  no 

plural. 

b.  Bequies,  rest,  has  ace.  requiem  oftener  than  requieteni  ; 

abl.  requle. 

Note.     The  student  will  remember  other  examples  of  heteroclite  fonns 
already  met  under  the  different  declensions. 

137.  The  coininonest  defective  nouns  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(1.)  Indeclinable  (indecrmahUki)  are  — 

fas,  right.  instar,  image. 

nefas,  wrong.  mane,  morning. 

nihil,  nothing.  pondd,  weight. 

a.  The  first  four  are  used  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive, but  7iihil  has  a  collateral  form  nihiluvi,  nihil'i,  nihilo  :  inane 
is  used  in  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  ablative.    (Cf.  114,  d.) 

(2.)  Frufjis,  of  fruit,  and  dicionis,  of  sway,  have  no 

nominative. 

(3.)  Nemo,  no  one,  has  no  vocative  and  no  plural,  and 
in  classical  Latin  no  genitive  and  no  ablative ;  these  cases 
are  supplied  by  the  pronominal  adjective  nullus, 

(4.)  The  following  are  used  only  as  given  :  — 


help  (sing.),  turn, 

power  {plur.). 

Singular, 


impetus,      fors, 
attack.  chance. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


opis 

opem 
ope 


impetus      fors 


Nom.  &  Ace.  opes 
Oen.  opum 

Dat.  &  Abl.    opibus 


vicis 

vicem 
vice 

Plural. 
vices 


impetu         

impetum     

impetu        forte 


impetus 


vicibus 


a.  Sponte,  will,  accord,  is  used  only  in  the  ablative  singular. 
So  also  various  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension,  as  admonitu, 
iUssu,  arhitratu,  ndtu,  etc. 

See  also  under  the  third  declension,  110,  and  fifth  declension,  133. 

138.  (1.)  Proper  names,  and  some  other  nouns,  from 
their  meaning  naturally  have  no  plural.  The  following 
nouns  also  lack  the  plural :  — 


aether,  the  sky. 
caenum,  mud. 
ebur,  ivory. 
gelff,  frost. 
humus,  the  ground. 
iubar,  radiance. 
lac,  milk. 
letum,  death. 


lues,  plague. 
mane,  morning. 
pubes,  youth. 
specimen,  example. 
ver,  spring. 
vesper,  evening. 
virus,  poison. 
valgum,  crowd. 


Umus,  mud. 
And  some  others  which  are  less  common. 

(2.)  Abstract  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  as  a  rule 
only  to  denote  instances  or  occasions  of  the  quality,  action, 
etc.     See  437,  3. 

139.  (1.)  Names  of  festivals  and  games,  and  several 


54 


INFLECTION. 


names  of  places  and  books,  have  no  singular ;  as,  Bacchd- 
ndlia,  Kalendae^  Bucollca,  Athenae. 

(2.)  Other  common  nouns  which  lack  the  singular  are 
the  follow inf]^ :  — 


acta  (2  *),  records. 
altdria  (3),  altar. 
angustiae^  narrow  pass. 
argatlae^  witticisms. 
arrna  (2),  weapons. 
bJgae,  a  two-horse  chariot. 
cdtu,  gray  hairs. 
cumMda  (2),  >  ^^.^^j^^ 
cunae,  ) 

dellciae,  darling. 
dlvitiae,  riches. 
excuhiae,  watch. 
exsequiae,  funeral  rites. 
exta  (2),  entrails. 
exuviae,  spoils. 
fasti,  calendar. 
fauces  (3),  jaws. 
fides  (3),  lyre. 
grates  "t  (3),  thanks. 


induvlae,  clothes. 
insldlae,  ambuscade. 
llberl,  children. 
ma  lores  (3),  ancestors. 
manes  (3),  shades  of  the  dead. 
vianuhiae,  spoils  of  war. 
minae^  threats. 

moenia  (3),  walls. 

munia  %  (2),  official  duties. 

nugae,  trifles. 

nuptial,  a  marriage. 

peridtes  (3),  household  gods. 

phalerae,  trappings. 

praecordia  (2),  diaphragm. 

quadrigae,  team  of  four  horses. 

reliquiae,  remains. 

scdlae,  ladder. 

tenehrae,  darkness. 

virgulta  (2),  bushes. 


indutiae,  a  truce. 
140.  The  following  nouns  usually  differ  in  meaning  in 
the  different  numbers  :  — 


Singidar. 
aed-es, )  _^^  ^   ^^^pj^^ 
aedis,  ) 

aqtia,  f.,  water, 
auxilium,  n.,  aid, 
career,  m.,  prison, 
castrum,  n.,  fort, 


Plural, 
aedes,  -ium.,  house. 

aquae,  a  watering  place. 
anxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 
carceres,  racecourse  barriers. 
castra,  a  camp. 


*  The  number  annexed  shows  the   declension,  wherever  doubt  might 

arise. 

t  Used  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative. 
X  Classical  only  in  nominative  and  accusative. 


I 


1 


IRREGULAR   NOUNS.  —  ADJECTIVES. 


55 


codicilli,  tablets. 
comitia,  an  assembly  for  elec- 
tion. 
copiae,  troops,  forces. 
facidtdtes,  property. 
f  tries,  bounds,  territory. 
fortunae,  possessions. 
grdtiae,  thanks. 
impediTneiita,  baggage. 

lltterae,  epistle  or  literature. 


OP 


cddicillus,  m.,  bit  of  wood, 

comitiuin,  n,,  place  of  as- 
sembly, 

copia,  i.,  plenty, 

facultds,  f.,  ability, 

finis,  m.  and  f.,  end, 

fortuna,  f.,  fortune, 

gratia,  f.,  favor, 

impedlrtientum,  n.,  a  hin- 
drance, 

littera,  f.,  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet, 

Indus,  m.,  pastime, 

ndtdlis,  m.,  birthday, 

opera,  f.,  work,  task, 

opis  (gen.),  f.,  help, 

pars,  i.,  part, 

plaga,  f.,  region,  tract, 
rostrum,,  n.,  beak,  prow, 
sdl^  m.  and  n.,  salt. 

Note.     Examples  of  redundant  nouns  are  seen  in  many  of  the  hetero- 
geneous nouns  and  heteroclites. 

ADJECTIVES. 

141.  Adjectives  are  declined  like  nouns,  but  there  are 
no  u-  stems  J  or  e-  stems  among  them.  Therefore  only  the 
first  three  declensions  are  used. 

142.  Adjectives  are  best  divided  into  two  classes  for 
declension  :  — 

I.  Adjectives  with  o-  stems  in  masculine  and  neuter, 
and  a-  stems  in  feminine. 

*  The  singular  is  occasionally  so  used. 

t  A  part  of  the  Roman  Forum  which  was  adorned  with  the  prows  of 

some  war  vessels. 

X  Unless  the  rare  compounds  of  manus  be  counted  an  exception.  An 
accusative  plunil  in  -us  is  found  of  anguimanus,  once  masculine,  once 
feminine,  in  Lucretitis. 


Indl,  public  games. 
ndtdles,  birth,  lineage. 
operas,  workmen. 
opes,  -um,  means,  resources. 
partes,     a.     part     played, 
(often)*  political  party. 
plagae,  nets,  toils. 
rostra,  the  Rostra.t 
sales,  witticisms. 


w 


5g  INFLECTION. 

II.  Adjectives  with  i-  stems  or  with  consonant  stems. 

FIRST    AND    SECOND    DECLENSION. 

143.  Adjectives  of  the  first  class  are  said  to  be  of  the 
First  and  Second  Declension.  They  are  declined  hke 
nouns  of  these  declensions.     Thus  :  — 


ADJECTIV^ES   OF    FIRST   AND   SECOND   DECLENSION.      57 


bonus,  good. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

Stem 

bono 

bonar 
Singular. 

bono- 

Nom. 

bomis 

bona 

bomim 

Gen. 

bom 

bonae 

boni 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonuni 

bona.m 

bonum 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

Plural. 

• 

N.  &V. 

bom 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

D.  &  A. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonas 
tener,  tender. 

bona 

Stem 

tenero- 

tenera- 
Singular. 

tenero- 

N.  &  V. 

tener 

tenera 

tenerum 

Gen. 

teneri 

tenerae 

teneri 

Dat. 

tenero 

tenerae 

tenerd 

Ace. 

tenemm 

teneram 

tenemm 

Abl. 

tenero 

tenera 
Plural. 

tenero 

N.  &V 

.  teneri 

tenerae 

tenera 

Gen. 

tenerormn             tenerarum 

tenerorum 

D.  &  A 

..   teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

Ace. 

teneros 

teneras 

tenera 

piger,  lazy. 

Stem 

pigro- 

pigra- 
Singular. 

pigro- 

N.  &V. 

piger 

pigra 

pigrum 

Gen. 

pigri 

pigrae 

pigri 

Dat. 

pigro 

pigrae 

pigro 

Ace. 

pigrum 

pigram 

pigrum 

Abl. 

pigr5 

pigra 
Plural. 

pigrd 

N.  &  V. 

pigri 

pigrae 

pigra 

Gen. 

pigr5rum 

pigrarum 

pigrdrum 

D.  &  A. 

pigris 

pigris 

pigris 

Ace. 

pigros 

pigras 

pigra 

a.  Adjectives  in  -ius  have  the  full  forms  in  the  genitive  and 
vocative  singular ;   as,  reg'ii  and  regie,  from  re  gins, 

144.  In  tener  and  the  few  adjectives  declined  like  it 
the  e  before  the  r  belongs  to  the  stem,  as  in  the  case  of 
analogous  nouns.     (Cf.   97,  2.) 

a.  These  adjectives  are  — 


asjjer,  rough. 
exter,  foreign. 
gibber,  crook-backed. 
lacer,  torn. 


miser,  wretched. 
prosjyer,  prosperous. 
satur,  full  (satiated). 
semirfer,  half-human. 


tiber,  free. 
And  the  compounds  of  gero  and/6;ro ;  as,  laniger,  letifer,  etc. 

Note.     Satur  is  the  only  adjective  of  the  second  declension  having  any 
vowol  but  e  before  the  final  r. 

145.  Six  adjectives  in  -us  and  three  in  -er  form  the 
genitive  singular  in  -ius  and  the  dative  singular  in  -i  for 
all  genders.     These  are  — 

alius,  another,  totus,  whole,  alter,  altera,  alterum,  the  other. 
nullum,  none.  fdlu^,  any.  uter,  utra,  utrum,  which  of  two. 
50^?^,  alone.         unus,  one.        neuter,  neiUra,  neutrum,  neither. 


58 


INFLECTION. 


146.  They  are  thus  declined  in  the  singular :  — 


M. 

Stem  uno- 

Nom.  unus 

Gen.  unius 

Dat.  uni 

Ace.  unum 

Voc.  une 

Abl.  uno 

Stem  alio- 

Nom.  alius 

Gen.  alius 

Dat.  alii 

Ace.  alium 

Voc.  


unus,  one. 

F. 

una- 

una 

unius 

iini 

unam 

iina 

iina 

alius,  another, 
alia- 

alia 
alius 
alii 
aliam 


Abl.      alio  alia 

uter,  which  (of  two). 
Stem     utro-  utrar 

Nora,  uter  utra 

Gen.  utrius  utrius 

Dat.  utri  utri 

Ace.  utrum  utram 

Voc.      

utra 


uno- 

unum 

unius 

uni 

unum 

unum 

iino 

alio- 

aliud 
alius 
alii 
aliud 

alio 

utro- 

utrum 
utrius 
utri 
utrum 

utro 


Abl.      utro 
The  plural  is  regular. 
a.  So  are  decUned  uterque,  each ;  alteniter,  one  or  the  other. 

CASE-FORMS. 

147.  (1.)  The  quantity  of  the  i  of  the  genitive  singu- 
lar is  common  in  poetry. 

(2.)  The  genitive  aluis  is  rare,  alterim  being  used  instead, 
except  in  the  possessive  sense,  which  is  supplied  by  the  adjective 
alieniis,  belonging  to  another. 


ADJECTIVES   OF  THIRD   DECLENSION. 


59 


(3.)  The  regular  forms  of  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  are 
occasionally  found,  especially  in  early  Latin  ;  as,  nullae  (gen.), 
(Plant.,  MU.,  iii.,  1,  207)  ;  mdld  (Cses.,  B.  G.,  vi.,  13). 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 

148.  The  adjectives  of  Class  XL  are  called  Adjectives 
of  the  Third  Declension.  They  are  declined  exactly  like 
nouns  of  the  third  declension,  except  that  the  forms 
properly  belonging  to  i-  stems  are  much  more  common 
than  in  nouns.  There  is  also  much  less  variety  in  the 
endings  of  the  nominative  singular. 

149.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  as  they  have  — 

(1.)  Three  forms  in  the  nominative  singular  for  the 
three  genders. 

(2.)  Two  forms  in  the  nominative  singular,  one  mascu- 
line and  feminine,  the  other  neuter. 

(3.)  One  form  for  all  three  genders. 

150.  Class  (1)  includes  only  certain  stems  in  ri-.  The 
i  is  dropped  in  the  nominative  singular  masculine ;  a  para- 
sitic e  is  then  developed  before  the  r  (as  in  the  noun 
stems  under  103,  c,  and  108,  h).  The  feminine  nomina- 
tive singular  ends  in  -is,  the  neuter  in  -e,  as  in  the  corre- 
sponding nouns.     Such  adjectives  are  thus  declined  :  — 

acer,  sharp.  Stem  acri- 

S  insular. 

M.  F.  N. 

Nom.  &  Voc.  acer  acris  acre 

Gen.  acris  acris  acris 

Dat.  &  Abl.  acri  acri  acri 

Ace.  acrem  acrem  acre 

Plu7'aL 
Nora.  &  Voc.  acres  acres  acria 

Gen.  acrium 

Dat.  &  Abl.     acribus 
Ace.  acres  (Is) 


acrium 

acrium 

acribus 

acribus 

acres  (-is) 

acria 

t 


60 


INFLECTION. 


161.  The  only  adjectives  of  this  class  are  — 

acer.  celeber.  pedester.  silvester. 

alacer,  equester.  puter,  terrester. 

campester.  paluster,  salUber,  volucer. 

CPlBTT 

And  the  names  of  the  months  September,  October,  November, 

a.  These  adjectives  sometimes  have  the  masculine  singular  in 
-is  like  the  feminine.  Tliis  is  especially  the  case  with  ptcter, 
saluber,  and  terrester, 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  the  form  in  -er  is  sometimes  found  as 

feminine  in  early  and  late  Latin. 

c.  Volucer  has  volucrum  in  the  genitive  plural. 

152.  Class  (2)  includes  all  other  i-  stems,  and  the  com- 
paratives  (consonant  stems).    They  are  thus  declined  :  — 

mitis,  mild.  mitior,  milder. 

Stem  miti-  mitior- 

Singular, 

M.  &  F.  N. 

N.«feV.  mitis  mite 

Gen.       mitis  mitis 

Dat.        miti  miti 

Ace.       mitem  mite 

Abl.       miti  miti 


M.  &  F. 

mitior 
mitioris 
initi5ri 
mitiorem. 


N. 

mitius 
mitioris 
mitiori 
mitius 


mitiore  (-i)      mitiore  (-i) 

Plural. 
N.&V.  mites  mitia  mitiores         mitiora 

Gen        mitimn       mitimn  mitiorum        miti5rum 

D  &  A.  mitibus      mitibus         mitioribus      mitidribus 
Ace.       mites  (-is)  mitia  mitiores  (-is)  mitiora 

153.  Flits,  more,  has  in  the  singular  only  the  forms  of 
the  neuter  gender.     The  plural  differs  from  that  of  other 

♦  In  this  adjective  the  e  in  the  final  syllable  belongs  to  the  stem,  and  is 
retained  throughout. 


ADJECTIVES   OF  THIRD   DECLENSION. 


61 


comparatives  in  having  -lima  in  the  gen.  plur.    Certain 
forms  are  wanting.     The  declension  is  as  follows :  — 

plus,  more.  Stem  plur- 

Singular,  Plural. 

N.  M.  &  F.  N. 

Nom.  plus  plures  plura  {rarely  pluria) 

Gen.  pluris  plurium  plurium 

Dat.  pluribus  pluribus 

Ace.  plus  plures  (-is)  plura 

Voc.  

Abl.  plure  {rare)  pluribus  pluribus 

So  also  the  plural  compound  coinplures,  a  great  many. 
154.  Class  (3)  includes  all  consonant  stems  except  the 
comparatives.     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 

felix,  happy.  praesens,  present. 

Stem  felic-  praesent- 

Siiigular. 

M.  &  F.  N.  M.  &  F.  N. 

N.,  V.  felix  felix  praesens  praesens 

G.        felicis  felicis  praesentis  praesentis 

D.        felici  felici  praesenti  praesenti 

Ac.      felicem  felix  praesentem  praesens 

Ab.      felici  (-e)  felici  (-e)  praesente  (-i)  praesente  (i) 

Plural. 

N.,  V.  felices  felicia  praesentes         praesentia 

G.        felicium  felicium  praesentium     praesentium 

D.,  A.  felicibus  felicibus  praesentibus     praesentibus 

Ac.      felices  (-is)  felicia  praesentes  (-is)  praesentia 

vetus,  old.         Stem  veter- 
Singular.  Plural. 

M.  &  F.  N.  M.  &  F.  N. 

N.  &  V.  vetus  vetus  veteres  Vetera 

G.  veteris       veteris  veterum  veterum 

D.  veteri         veteri  veteribus  veteribus 

Ac.  veterem    vetus  veteres  (-is)  Vetera 

Ab.         vetere  (-i)  vetere  (-i)  veteribus  veteribus 


62 


INFLECTION. 


ADJECTIVES. 


NUMERALS. 


63 


CASE-FORMS. 
155.  (1.)  Adjectives,  unlike  nouns,  tend  to  the  forms 
of  the  i-  declension,  as  is  shown  particularly  by  the  abla- 
tive singular,  and  the  genitive  and  accusative  plural. 

(2.)  *The  only  adjectives  which  commonly  have  -e  in 
the  ablative  singular  are  the  comparatives  and  — 
compos,  sharing  in.  praeceps,  headlong. 

desidis  (genitive),  indolent.        puher,  youthful. 
drives,  rich.  superstes,  surviving. 

pauper,  poor.  supplex.  suppliant. 

particeps,  sharing.  vetus,  old. 

a.  But  most  adjectives  of  one  ending  (Class  3,  above)  have  -e, 
when  used  as  nouns.  So  also  most  present  participles,  and  par- 
ticipial adjectives  like  praesens,  when  used  as  participles. 

(3.)  Only  a  few  adjectives  have  -um  in  the  genitive  plu- 
ral.    The  most  common  are  dives,  compos,  inops  (poor), 
jyraepes   (swift   of    flight),  supplcx,  and   compounds   of 
nouns  which  have  -um.     Most  of  these  adjectives  lack  the 
nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  plural  altogether. 
a.  Lociqdes  has  locupletum  and  locupletium, 
(4.)   Almost   all   adjectives   can   have   the   accusative 
plural  in  -is  as  well  as  -es,  but  -is  is  less  common  in  the 
adjectives  with  consonant  stems  than  in  those  with  vowel 

stems. 

(5.)  Some  adjectives  are  indeclinable,  as  frug'i  (reaUy 
a  dative  of  Ifriix])  worthy,  and  nequam,  worthless ;  potis, 
pote,  possible,  is  sometimes  used  as  indeclinable,  some- 
times regularly  declined. 

(6.)  A  few  adjectives  are  used   only  in  one  or  two 

forms,  as :  — 

exspes,  without  hope,     only  nominative. 

exlex,  lawless,  nominative  and  accusative. 

mdctus,  honored,  nominative  and  vocative. 

*  To  these  may  be  added  the  ablative  pernocte,  which  is  the  only  obliqtie 
case  used  of  pernox,  lasting  all  night. 


necessary,        nominative  and  accusative. 


necesse 

necessum 

pernox,  lasting  all  night,    nominative  and  ablative. 
Hehes,  dull ;   teres,  round  ;  and  a  few  others,  lack  the  genitive 
plural.     Desidis,  indolent,  lacks  also  the  nominative  singular. 

(7.)  A  few  adjectives  (heteroclites)  have  besides  the 
third  declension  form  another  in  the  second  declension. 
The  most  common  are  — 

auxillaris  and  auxilldrius  (less  common),  auxiliary. 

hiiugis  (rare)  and  hliugns,  yoked  two  together. 

exanimis  (rare  in  plural)  and  exaniwus,  lifeless. 

hilaris  and  hilarus,  cheerful. 

imhecUlls  (rare)  and  imbecilliis,  weak. 

inermis  and  btenmis  (very  rare),  unarmed. 

optdens  and  opulentus,  rich. 

procllvis  and  procl'ivos  (less  common),  sloping. 

singiddrls  and  singular  lies,  singular. 

violens  and  violentus,  violent. 

Numeral  Adjectives  (Numerdlia). 

156.  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  three  princi- 
pal classes :  (1.)  cardinals  (cardinalia)  ;  (2.)  ordi- 
nals (^drdinalia)  ;  (3.)  distributives  (distributiva), 

157.  (1.)  Cardinals  simply  denote  the  number  of  things 
meant  and  answer  the  question  quot  (i.  e.,  how  many)? 
as,  unus,  one  ;  vlginfi,  twenty. 

(2.)  Ordinals  denote  order  or  rank  and  answer  the 
question  qvotus  (i.  e.,  how  many-eth)  ?  as,  primus,  first ; 
qmntus,  fifth. 

(3.)  Distributives  denote  an  equal  distribution  among  a 
given  number  of  persons  or  things,  and  answer  the 
question  quoteni  (i.  e.,  how  many  apiece)  ?  as,  birii,  two 
apiece. 

(4.)  For  convenience  the  numeral  adverbs  are  given 
with  the  adjectives.  They  answer  the  question  quotiens 
(i.  e.,  how  many  times)  ?  as,  semel,  once  ;  decies,  ten  times. 


64 


INFLECTION. 


158.  The  numeral  adjectives  (cardinals,  ordinals,  and 
distributives),  and  also  the  adverbs,  from  one  to  twenty, 


CARDINALS. 

1  unus,  -a,  -um 

2  duo,  -se,  -o 

3  tres,  -ia 

4  quattuor 

5  qulnque 

6  sex 

7  septem 

8  octo 

9  novem 

10  decern 

11  undecim 

12  duodecim 

13  tredecim 

14  quattuordecim 


one 

two 

three 

four 

five 

six 

seven 

eight 

nine 

ten 

eleven 

twelve 

thirteen 

fourteen 


15  quindecim  fifteen 


16  sedecim 

17  septendecira 

18  duodeviginti 


sixteen 

seventeen 

eighteen 


ORDINALS. 

primus 

secundus 

tertius 

quartus 

quintus 

sextus 

Septimus 

octavus 

nunus 

deciraus 

undecimus 

duodecimus 

tertius  deeimus 

quartus  deeimus 

quintus  deeimus 

sextus  deeimus 
Septimus  deeimus 
duodevicesiraus 


19  undevlgint!  nineteen  undevicesimus 


20  viginti 


twenty 


\ 


21  vi^"^^  ^"^^.      I  twenUj-one 
unus  et  viginti  > 

22  ^'8'n«  duo        )  ^^.^„^^^„ 
duo  et  viginti    t 

28  duodeti'iginta       twenty-eight 

undetriginta    \    i^^.^nty-nine 
viginti  novem  ) 


vicesimus  ) 

vTgesiraus  ) 
(  vicesimus  primus  ) 
(  unus  et  vigt'simus  ) 
•  vicesimus  alter  ^ 
J  alter  et  vicesimus  >• 
(  duo  et  vicesimus   ) 

duodetricesimus 

undetrict'simus 


NUMERALS. 


65 


with  examples  of  the  higher  numbers,  are  given  in  the 
following  table,  together  with  the  Roman  signs  for  them. 


DISTRIBUTIVKS. 

ADVERBS. 

ROMAN  SIGNS 

singuli 

semel 

I. 

bini 

bis 

II. 

term 

ter 

III. 

quatemi 

quater 

IIII  or  IV. 

quini 

quinquies 

V. 

sen! 

sexies 

VI. 

septeni 

septies 

VII. 

octoni 

octies 

VIII. 

noveni 

novies 

villi  or  IX. 

deni 

decies 

X. 

undeni 

iindecies 

XI. 

duodeni 

duodecies 

XII. 

terni  deni 

ter  decies 

XIII. 

quaterni  deni 

quater  decies 

XIIII  or  XIV. 

quini  deni 

(  quinquies  decies 
(  quindecies 

} 

XV. 

seni  deni 

(  sexies  decies  ) 
( sedecies           ) 

XVI. 

septeni  deni 

septies  decies 

XVII. 

(  duodeviceni ) 
(  octoni  deni  ) 

octies  decies 

XVIII. 

(  undeviceni   ) 
(  noveni  deni ) 

novies  decies 

XVIIII  or  XIX. 

viceni 

vicies 

XX. 

viceni  sinmili 

(  vicies  semel      ) 

XXI. 

viceni  bini 

duodetriceni 
iindetriceni 


(  vicies  bis        ) 
(  bis  et  vicies  ) 

duodetricies 

iindetricies 


xxn. 

XXVIII. 
XXVIIIIorXXIX. 


66 


INFLECTION. 


NUMERALS. 


67 


30 


CARDINALS, 
triginta 


40 
50 
60 
70 

80 
90 

99 

100 
101 

102 


quadrfiglnta 

quin([uiiginta 

sexiiginta 

septuaginta 

octoginta 

nonaginta 

undecentum 

(nonaginta  no- 

vem) 
centum 

centum  et  unus 
centum  unus 


thirty 
forty 

fifty 

sixty 
seventy 
eighty 
ninety 


ORDINALS. 

( tricesimus  ) 

( trigesimus  ) 
quadragrsimus 
qulnquagrsiniua 
sexagt'simus 
septuagr-simus 
octogesimus 
nonagesimus 


) 

\ 
\ 


niTiety-nine         undecentesimus 


one  hundred 
hundred  and 
one 


1 


200 
300 
400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

2,000 

100,000 


centum  et  duo  |    hundred  and 
centum  duo       ) 
ducenti,  -ae,  -a 
trecenti,  -ae,  -a 
quadringenti, 

-ae,  -a 
qulngenti,  -ae,  -a  five  hundred 
sescenti,  -ae,  -a  six  hundred 
septingentT,-ae,-a  seven  hundred 
octingent!,  -ae,  -a  eight  hurulred 
nongenti,  -ae,  -a     nine  hundred 


two 
two  hundred 
three  hundred 

four  hundred 


miUe 
duo  milia 
centum  milia 


1,000,000 
2,000,000 
3,000,000 


one  thousand 

two  thousand 

one  hundred 

tliousand 

decies  centena  (or 

centum)  milia      one  million 
vicies  centena  (or 

centum)  milia      two  million 

tricies  centum 
milia  three  million 


centesimns 
centesimus  et  unus 
centesimus  unus 
centesimus  et  alter 
centesimus  alter 
ducentesimus 
trecentesimus 

quadringentesimus 

quingentesimus 

sescentesimus 

septingentesimus 

octingentesimus 

nongentesimus 

millesimus 

bis  millesimus 

centies  millesimus 

decies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 

vicies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 

tricies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 


DISTRIBUTIVES. 

triceni 

quadrageni 

quinquiigeni 

sexageni 

sej)tuagem 

octogeni 

nonageni 


ADVERBS. 

tricies 

quadragies 

quinquagies 

sexagies 

septuiigies 

octogies 

nonagies 


ROMAN   SIGNS. 


undecenteni         undecenties 


XXX. 

XXXX  or  XL. 

L. 

LX. 

LXX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXX  or  XC. 

IC. 


centenT 

centies 

c. 

centeni  singul 

_  (  centies  et  semel  |^ 
i  centies  semel      j 

CI. 

centeni  bin! 

f  centies  et  bis  ) 
(  centies  bis       ) 

CII. 

duceni 

ducenties 

cc. 

treceni 

trecenties 

ccc. 

quadringenl 

quadringenties 

CCCC  or  CD. 

quingeni 

quingenties 

D  or  10- 

sesceni 

sescenties 

DC  or  IOC. 

septingeni 

septingenties 

DCC  or  lOCC. 

octingeni 

•  octingenties 

DCCC  or  lOCCC. 

nongeni 

ndngenties 

DCCCC  or  lOCCCC 

singula  milia 

millies 

M  or  CIO. 

bina  milia 

bis  millies 

MM  or  CIOCID. 

centena  milia 

centies  milies 

CCCIOOO. 

decies  centena 

milia  decies  centies  milies  CCCCIOOOO- 

vicies    centena 

milia  vicies  centies  milies  CCCCI00DDCCCCI0030. 

tricies  centena  milia 

tricies  centies  milies  CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO. 


68 


INFLECTION. 


NUMERALS. 


69 


I 


169.  The  cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum,  also  m'lUe^ 
are  indeclinable.  The  cardinals  for  hundreds,  and  the 
distributives,  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus.  The 
ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus  in  both  numbers.  Unus, 
Vuo,  tres,  and  ni'dia  (pi.)  are  also  declined. 

160.  Unus  has  been  declined  in  146.  Tres  and  mVla 
are  declined  like  the  plural  of  regidar  adjectives  of  the 
third  declension.     Duo  is  thus  declined  :  — 


N.  i&  V. 

G. 

D.  &  Ab. 

Ac. 


M. 

duo 

duorum 
duobus 
duos  or  duo 


F. 

duae 
duarum 
duabus 
duas 


N. 

duo 

duorum 
duobus 
duo 


a.  The  shorter  form  of  the  genitive,  duUm,  is  used  especially 
in  compounds  like  duTimviri,  and  when  joined  with  milium. 

b.  Like  duo  is  declined  ambd,  both,  except  that  the  final  o  is 
long.     They  are  remnants  of  the  dual  number.     (See  86,  a.) 

161.  The  plural  of  unus  is  used  with  nouns  which  have 
no  singular  or  a  different  meaning  in  the  singular;  as, 
unae  mij)tiae,  one  wedding ;  una  castra,  one  camp.  To 
denote  more  than  one  with  such  nouns  the  distributives  * 
are  used  ;  as,  blna  castra.  two  camps. 

a.  The  plural  of  unus  is  also  used  with  nouns  denoting  seve- 
ral things  considered  as  one  whole ;  as,  una  vestlmeufa,  one  suit 
of  clothes  ;  and  in  the  meaning  "  alone  "  or  ''  the  same  ; "  as,  unl 
Ubii,  the  Ubii  alone  ;  un'is  morihus  v'lvere,  to  live  according  to 
the  same  habits  (as  some  one  else). 

b.  The  numbers  from  twelve  to  nineteen  are  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  two  numbers,  the  greater  of  which  usually  precedes 
with  et ;  as,  decern  et  tres.  etc. ;  or  without  et ;  as,  decern  novem. 

c.  From  twenty  to  one  hundred  the  smaller  number  with  et 
is  put  first,  or  the  larger  number  without  et ;  as,  mius  et  vlgint'i 
or  vigintl  unus.  Ordinals,  however,  omit  et  when  the  smaller 
number  precedes  and  sometimes  take  it  when  the  larger  pre- 

*  Trhil  is  used  for  term  in  such  cases. 


I 


cedes  ;  as,  tertius  decimus,  and  decimus  tertius  or  decimus  et  ter- 
tius.  The  adverbs  may  also  take  et  when  the  larger  number 
l)recedes  ;  as,  vlci^s  et  ter  as  well  as  ter  et  vlcies  and  vtcies  ter. 

d.  Instead  of  primus  and  secuiidus,  prior  and  alter  are  used 
when  only  two  are  spoken  of.  Alter  is  otherwise  often  used  for 
secundus  ;  and,  in  the  compound  numbers,  xrnus  and  alter  are 
often  used  for  primus  and  secundus  ;  as,  unus  et  vicesimics, 
alter  et  trlr/eslmus. 

e.  Sixty-eight,  sixty-nine,  and  ninety-eight,  are  expressed  by 
addition  only ;  the  other  eights  and  nines  generally  by  subtrac- 
tion only,  except  that  twenty-eight,  twenty-nine,  and  thirty-nine, 
as  well  as  some  of  the  distributives  and  adverbs,  have  both 
forms.  Among  ordinals  seventy-eight,  seventy-nine,  eighty- 
eight,  and  eighty-nine  have  only  the  forms  by  addition. 

/.  Above  one  hundred  the  larger  number  precedes  with  or 
without  et ;  as,  centum  et  unus  or  centum  unus.  Et  is  never  used 
more  than  once,  and  then  after  the  first  number ;  as,  trecent'i  et 
sexaginta  sex.  Numeral  adverbs  are  to  be  added  together 
when  the  larger  precedes,  but  multiplied  together  when  the 
smaller  precedes.  Thus,  while  centies  decies  means  a  hundred 
and  ten  times,  decies  centies  means  ten  times  a  hundred  times, 
i.  e.,  a  thousand  times. 

g.  Mllle  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective,  but  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  it  also  occurs  as  a  noun ;  mllia  is  a  noun, 
and  may  be  used  with  a  genitive.  Thus :  mille  homines  and 
duo  mllia  hominum. 

h.  Thousands  are  expressed  by  prefixing  the  cardinal  num- 
bers to  mllia,  millions  by  further  prefixing  a  numeral  adverb. 
Thus :  decern  mllia  =  10,000. 
ducenta  mllia  =  200,000. 

trlcies   centum    mllia  =  3,000,000    (i.  e.,    thirty   times 
100,000). 
{.  The  year  and  the  hour  are  expressed  by  ordinals.     Thus  : 
hdril  septimdj  at  the  seventh  hour ;  annus  quingentesimus  trl- 
cesi?nus  prl7nus,  the  year  five  hundred  and  thirty-one. 

k.  Fractions   are   expressed  by  ordinals   with  pars,   a  part. 
Thus,  J  =  tertia  pars.     One  half  is  generally,  however,  expressed 


70 


INFLECTION. 


COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES. 


71 


I  1 


by  dlmidia  pars,  or  dlmidium  and  a  genitive.  Also,  fractions 
whose  numerator  is  one  less  than  the  denominator  are  ex- 
pressed by  cardinals  with  partes.  Thus  :  §  =  dime  partes,  J  = 
tres  partes,  etc. 

Note.  For  various  derivative  adjectives  expressing  numerical  relations 
see  286. 

162.   (1.)  The  Romans  represented  numbers  by  letters  ; 

as,  I-l,  V  =  5,  X=10. 

Note.  In  several  cases  these  letters  grew  out  of  early  forms  discarded 
from  the  alphabet  as  we  have  it.  Thus,  the  old  aspirates,  O.  0,  V,  were 
used  for  KK),  1000,  and  .■)0  respectively,  and  developed  into  C,  CD,  and  1. 
Then  five  hundred  (half  one  thousand)  was  denoted  by  I).  For  these  were 
then  substituted  C,  M,  L,  D ;  but  for  M  and  D,  CIO  and  Id  are  often 
written. 

(2.)  When  a  letter  is  repeated,  the  number  is  equal  to 
the  value  of  the  letter  multiplied  by  the  number  of  times 
it  occurs.  Thus,  II  =  2  x  1,  or  2  ;  XXX  =  10x3,  or  30  ; 
CCCC  =  100  X  4,  or  400.  V  and  L  are  not  thus  repeated. 
(3.)  When  a  letter  of  smaller  value  is  placed  before 
one  of  larger  value,  its  value  is  subtracted  from  the  larger 
value ;  placed  after,  it  is  added  to  the  larger  value ;  as :  — 

IV     four,        V    five,  VI     six. 

IX     nine,        X   ten,  XI    eleven. 

XL    forty,       L    fifty,  LX    sixty. 

XC    ninety,    C     hundred,     CX   hundred  and  ten. 

a.  Annexing  0  to  13  multipHes  by  ten.     Thus  :  — 
ID  =  500  ;  130  =  5,000 ;  1330  =  50,000. 
h.  Prefixing  C  and  annexing  0  to  CIO  also  multiplies  by  ten. 

Thus :  — 

CIO  =  1000 ;  CCIOO  =  10,000 ;  CCCIOOO  =  100,000. 

c.  Hundreds    of    thousands    are    represented    by  repeating 

CCCIOOO.     Thus :  — 

CCCIOOOCCCIOOOCCCIOOO  =  300,000. 

d.  Sometimes  thousands  are  expressed  by  a  straight  line  over 
the  numeral  letters.     Thus  :  —      

X  =  10,000;  XL  =  40,000. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  (Compardtio). 

163.  (1.)  The  COMPARISON  of  an  adjective  is  the  change 
of  its  form  to  express  its  quality  in  different  degrees. 

(2.)  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  the  posi- 
tive {f/radus  positivu,s},  the  comparative  {gradus  corn- 
parattvn.s),  and  the  superlative  {gradns  superlatwus), 

164.  (1.)  The  POSITIVE  simply  denotes  a  quality,  with- 
out reference  to  other  degrees  of  the  same  quality;  as, 
altus^  high  ;  mltis,  mild. 

(2.)  The  COMPARATIVE  denotes  that  a  quality  exists  in 
one  of  two  instances  to  a  greater  degree  than  in  the  other ; 
as,  ultior,  higher ;  mitlor,  milder. 

(3.)  The  SUPERLATIVE  denotes  that  a  quality  exists  in 
one  of  several  (or  all  possible)  instances  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  in  any  other ;  as,  altissimus,  highest ;  mltlssi' 
mvs,  mildest. 

a.  The  comparative  is  also  used  elliptically  where  we  use 
"too"  or ''rather;"  as,  vwit  liberim,  he  lives  too  freely  or 
rather  freely. 

h.  Tlie  superlative  often  indicates  a  high  degree  of  a  quality 
without  direct  comparison  with  other  objects  ;  as,  ainicus  cdris- 
simus,  a  very  dear  friend. 

c.  The  superlative  with  quam  denotes  that  the  quality  exists 
in  the  highest  possible  degi-ee ;  as,  quam  7ndximus,  as  great  as 
possible. 

d.  Degrees  of  a  quality  less  than  the  positive  may  be  denoted 
by  mi7nis,  less,  and  minime,  least,  prefixed  to  the  positive,  as  in 
English. 

165.  The  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  -lor  (m.  and 
f.),  -ius  (n.),  to  the  stem  of  an  adjective;  in  the  case  of 
the  vowel  stems  the  stem  vowel  is  dropped.  The  super- 
lative is  formed  by  adding  in  the  same  way  -issimus, 
-issima,  -issimum.     Thus  :  — 


72 


INFLECTION. 

Positive 

Stem 

Comparative 

Superlative 

altus 

alto 

altior 

altissimus 

mitis 

rniti- 

mitior 

mitissiuius 

felTx 

felic- 

felicior 

felicissimus 

Irregular  Comparison. 

166.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  comparative  regularly, 
but  add  -rimus  to  the  positive  to  form  the  superlative. 
Thus :  — 

acer  acri-  acrior  acerrimus 

a.  So  vetus  has  as  superlative  veterrimits. 

167.  Six  adjectives  in  -lis  form  their  superlative  by- 
adding  -limus  to  the  stem  without  the  stem  vowel. 
Thus  :  — 

facilis,  easy 
difficilis,  hard 
gracilis,  slender 
hiimilis,  low 
similis,  like 
dissimilis,  unlike 


facillimus 

difficillimus 

gracillirQUS 

humillimus 

simillimus 

dissimillimus 


facilior 

difficilior 

gracilior 

humilior 

similior 

dissimilior 

a.  Imhecillus  (-is)  has  also  sometimes  imhecillimm. 

168.  (1.)  Five  adjectives  in  -ficus  (cf.  facio)   derive 

their  comparatives  and  superlatives  from  supposed  forms 

in  -ficens.     Thus  :  — 

beneficus,  kind      beneficentior      beneficentissimus 

a.  So  hondrificus,  honorable,  magnijicus,  splendid,  munificus, 
liberal,  and  maleficus,  hurtful,  except  that  maleficus  has  no 
comparative. 

(2.)  So  adjectives  in  -dicens  (from  cUco)  and  -volens 
(from  volo),  though  compared  regularly,  have  more  com- 
monly a  positive  form  in  -dicus  and  -volus.     Thus  :  — 

maledicus  (maledi- 

cens),  slanderous        maledicentior    maledicentissimus 

bene  volus  (benevo- 

lens),  well-wishing     benevolentior    benevolentissimus 


DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON. 


73 


169.  The  following  adjectives  show  various  irregidari- 
ties  of  comparison  :  — 


bonus,  good 
malus,  bad 
magnus,  great 
parvus,  small 
multus,  much 
dexter,  right,  skillful 
nequam,  worthless 
frugi,  worthy 


melior 

peior 

maior 

minor 

plus* 

dexterior 

nequior 

frugalior 


optimus 

pessimus 

maximus 

minimus 

plurimus 

dextimus 

nequissimus 

friigalissimus 


Note  The  superlative  suf&z  mo-  seenis  to  have  been  the  earliest. 
This  was  then  combined  with  the  suffix  tO-,  SO-  (see  255),  making 
-tumus,  -sumus  (-timus,  -simus),  which  are  found  assimilated  as 
-limus,  -rimus.  (See  above,  166,  167).  The  common  ending;-  -issimus 
either  grew  from  adding  -simus  to  comparatives,  or  w;is  formed  in  some 
way  after  the  pattern  of  the  earlier  ending  -mus.  See  I  wan  MUller,  Uand- 
buch  der  Altertumswiss.,  ii.,  B.,  p.  220. 

Defective  Comparison. 

170.  (1.)  The  following  adjectives  are  formed  from 
stems  of  prepositions,  and  are  seldom  or  never  used  in 
the  positive  :  — 

cis,  citra  [citerj  citerior,  hither 

de  deterior,  worse 

in,  intra  interior,  inner 

prae,  pro  prior,  former 

prope  propior,  nearer 

iiltra  [iilter]  ulterior,  farther 

(2.)  Four  others  are  used,  in  many  forms  of  the  posi- 
tives, though  not  classical  in  the  nominative  singular 
masculine  ;  namely :  — 

exterior,  outer 


citimus 

deterrimus 

intimus 

primus 

prozimus 

ill  timus 


ex,  extra 

infra 

post 


[extenis]  I'exter) 
[inferus]  (infer) 

[po  stems] 


super,  supra  [superus] 


inferior,  inner 
posterior,  hinder 
superior,  upper 


(  extremus 
/  extimus 
(  infimus 
/  imus 
(  postremus 
/  postumus 
(  supremus 
(  summus 


*  Only  neuter  in  singular.     (See  153.) 


V 

I 


74 


INFLECTION. 


(3.)  The  following  two  have  no  positive  :  — 
ocior,  swifter  ocissimus 

potior,  preferable  potissimus 

171.  The  following  adjectives  have  no  comparative  :  — 
hellus,  fine.  invitiis,  unwilling. 
caesliis,  bluish  gray.  navos,  new. 

falsics,  false.  piuSj  filial. 

ftdiis,  faithful.  sacer,  sacred. 

inclutus,  renowned.  vafer,  crafty. 

invlctusy  invincible.  vetuSj  old. 

172.  (1.)  The  following  have  no  superlative  :  — 


adulescens,  young. 
agrest'iSy  rustic. 
alacer^  lively. 
caecus,  blind. 
diuturnus,  lasting. 
exllis,  thin. 
inf'iiutus^  unlimited. 
imjens^  great. 
ieiUnus^  fasting. 
lon(/7nqvf(s,  distant. 
oplmuSy  rich. 
procllvls,  sloping. 


jjrdnicSj  bending  forward. 
proplfiquuSy  near. 
salutdris,  salutary. 
satur,  full. 
sef//tls,  slow. 
siloestrls,  woody. 
sinister,  left. 

sup'tnits,  lying  on  the  back. 
surduSy  deaf. 
tempesfivoSy  seasonable. 
tereSy  round. 


vtclnuSy  neighboring. 
With  many  in  -alls,  -ills,  -ills,  and  -bills,  and  a  few  other  less 
common  adjectives. 

(2.)  luvenis,  young,  compar.  iunior,  and  senex,  old, 
conipar.  senior,  have  the  superlative  supplied  by  minimus 
natu  and  maximus  natii,  respectively. 

173.  The  comparative  and  superlative  may  also  be 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  positive  the  adverbs  magis, 
more,  and  maxime,  most,  as  in  English.  Thus :  idoneus^ 
fit,  magis  idoneus,  maxime  idoneus. 

a.  This  method  of  comparison  is  common  with  adjectives 
ending  in  -icus,  -idus-,  -ulus,  -undus,  -imus,  -inus,  -orus, 
-ivos.  -us  pure  (except  -uus),  and  some  others. 


li 


COMPARISON    OF   ADVERBS. 


75 


Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

174.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first 
and  second  declension  generally  by  substituting  e  for  the 
stem  vowel ;  from  adjectives  of  the  third  declension,  and 
occasionally  from  the  others,  by  adding  -ter  to  the  stem, 
before  which  a  and  o  are  w^eakened  to  i.  Thus :  durut-, 
diire  ;  acer,  ucriter  ;  f'lrmus^firmiter,* 

«.  The  final  -e  is  short  in  bene,  well ;  male,  ill ;  inferne,  be- 
low ;  superne,  above  ;  and  saep)e,  often.     (Cf.  46,  «,  2.) 

h.  Stems  in  t-  retain,  of  course,  only  one  t  in  the  adverb ;  as, 
prudens,  prudenter  ;  sollers,  sollerter. 

Auddx  has  auddctei',  and  less  connnonly  aiiddciter. 

c.  Facilis,  easy,  has  facilef;  difficilis,  ha^rd,  difficulter ;  and 
neqtiam,  worthless,  neqiiiter. 

175.  Only  the  adverbs  thus  formed  from  adjectives  are 
as  a  rule  compared.  The  comparative  is  the  neuter  ac- 
cusative singular  of  the  comparative  of  the  adjective ;  the 
superlative  is  the  superlative  of  the  adjective  with  e  sub- 
stituted for  the  stem  vowel.  If  the  adjective  is  irregular 
the  adverb  shows  similar  irregularity.     Thus :  — 

dure,  hard  dtirius 

acriter,  sharply   acrius 
audacter,  boldly  audacius 

So  also  male,  ill  peius 

parve,  little         minus 
aperte,  openly     magis  aperte  maxime  aperte,  etc, 

176.  A  few  adverbs  thus  compared  have  no  adjectives 
in  use.     Thus  :  — 

diu,  long  diiitius  diutissime 

saepe,  often  saepius  saepissime 

*  These  adjectives  of  the  second  declension  g-enerally  also  have  adverbs 
in  -e  ;  as,  firme  ;  but  alius  and  violentus  have  only  aliter  and  violenter. 
t  Really  neuter  accusative  of  the  adjective.     (Cf.  557,  a,  note.) 


durissime 

acerrime 

audacissime 

pessime 
minime 


,    I 


76 


INFLECTION. 


a.  Two  slightly  irregular  forms  are  — 

bene,  well  (from  bonus)   melius  optime 

magis  (comp.),  more  (from  magnus)   raaxime 

Note.     Other  adverbs  are  not    compared,   and  will  be  treated  later. 
(See  187,  292,  293,  and  557.) 

PRONOUNS. 

177.  Pronouns  include  the  following  classes :  — 

(1.)  Yer^O^ XLS  (^prd7idmina  2)ersdnalia^  :  as,  ego^  1; 
tu,  thou ;  including  the  reflexive  (rejlexwum)^  sui,  of 

himself,  etc. 

(2.)  Demonstratives  (cUmonstratim) :    as,    is,   he, 

that ;  hic,  this. 

(3.)  Intensives  (intensiva')  :  as,  ipse,  self;  Idem,  the 

same. 

(4.)  Relatives  (relafiva)  :  as,  qui,  who. 

(5.)  Interrogatives  {interrogativa)  :  as,  qxiis,  who? 

(6.)  Indefinftes  (iyidefimta) :  as,  aliquis,  some  one 
or  other;  quulam,  some  (particular)  one. 

(7.)  Possessives  (j)Oiisesslva} :  as,  mens,  my ;  crih/s, 

whose  ? 

(8.)  Patrials  {patridlia)  :  as,  nostras,  of  our  coun- 
try. 

Persoxals. 

178.  The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined :  — 

Singular. 

Norn.  eg5,  I.  tu,  thou,  you. 

Gen.    mei,  of  me.  tui,  of  thee,  you. 

Dat.     mihi,  to  me.  tibi,  to  thee,  you. 

Ace.     me,  me.  te,  thee,  you. 

Voc.     tu,  thou,  you. 

Abl.     me,  with  or  by  me.  te,  with  or  by  thee,  you. 


pronouns.  —  PERSONALS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES.       77 

Plural. 

Nom.  nos,  we.  v5s,  ye,  you. 

Gen.    nostrum,*  or  nostri,  vestrum,  or  vestri, 

of  us.  of  you. 

Dat.     nobis,  to  us.  vobis,  to  you. 

Ace.     nos,  us.  v5s,  you. 

Voc.     vos,  ye,  you. 

Abl.     nobis,  with  or  by  us.  v5bis,  with  or  by  you. 

179.  The  reflexive  pronoun  is  the  same  in  both  num- 
bers and  in  all  genders.     Thus :  — 

Nom.  

Gen.    sui,  of  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves. 
Dat.     sibi,  to  himself,  etc. 
Ace.     se  (sese),  himself,  etc. 

Voc.     

Abl.     se  (sese),  with  or  by  himself,  etc, 

a.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  when  not  reflex- 
ive is  supplied  by  the  demonstratives,  is,  ea,  id,  and  (more  em- 
phatic) hic,  haef\  hoc,  or  ille,  ilia,  illiid.     (See  180,  below.) 

b.  All  the  forms  of  the  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns,  ex- 
cept tu  and  the  plural  genitives,  sometimes  add  the  suflix  -met 
for  greater  emphasis.     Thus  :  egomet,  vosniet,  semet. 

c.  Tu  has  an  emphatic  form  tute,  and  in  old  Latin  tete  is 
used  as  more  emphatic  for  te. 

d.  Mi  is  old  and  poetic  for  miht.  Mepte  and  med  for  me, 
ted  for  te,  mis  for  me'i,  and  lis  for  tut,  occur  in  the  comic  poets. 

Note.  The  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns,  with  the  intensive  ipse, 
are  the  only  pronouns  in  the  strict  sense  (i.  c,  words  used  instead  o/ nouns). 
The  possessives  and  patrials  are  really  adjectives,  and  the  others  are  used 
as  adjectives  as  well  as  pronouns. 

Demonstratives. 
180.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  thus  declined :  — 

*  Nostrum  and  vestrum  are  mostly  confined  to  the  partitive  use  (see 
Syntax,  354)  ;  nostri  and  vestri  are  used  for  other  relations. 


78 


INFLECTION. 

is,  he,  that. 

Singular, 

M. 

F. 

N. 

Nom. 

is 

ea 

id 

Gen. 

eius 

eius 

eius 

Dat. 

ei 

ei 

ei  . 

Ace. 

eum 

eam 

id 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

Plural. 

eo 

Nom. 

ei  (ii) 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

eornin 

earum 

eorum 

D.  &  A. 

eis  (lis) 

eis  (iis) 

eis  (iis) 

Ace. 

e5s 

eas 
hie,  this. 

ea 

Singular. 

Nora. 

hie 

haee 

h6c 

Gen. 

haius 

huius 

hiiius 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

Ace. 

hmnc 

hanc 

h5c 

Abl. 

hoc 

hac 
Plural. 

hoc 

Nom. 

hi 

hae 

haee 

Gen. 

horum 

harum 

horum 

D.  &  A. 

his 

his 

his 

Ace. 

h5s 

has 

iste,  this,  that. 
Singular. 

haee 

Nom. 

iste 

ista 

istud 

Gen. 

istius 

istius 

istius 

Dat. 

isti 

isti 

isti 

Ace. 

istum 

istam 

istud 

Abl. 

ist5 

ista 

istd 

PRONOUNS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES. 


79 


Plural. 

Nom. 

isti 

istae 

ista 

Gen. 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

D.  &  A. 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Ace. 

istos 

istas 

ille,  that. 
Singular. 

ista 

Nom. 

ille 

iUa 

iUud 

Gen. 

illius 

illius 

illius 

Dat. 

illi 

illi 

illi 

Ace. 

ilium 

illam 

illud 

Abl. 

iU5 

ilia 
Plural, 

illo 

Nora. 

illi 

illae 

ilia 

Gen. 

i  Horum 

illarum 

illorura 

D.  &  A. 

illis 

illis 

illis 

Ace. 

illos 

illas 

ilia 

a.  The  old  form  of  ille  was  ollus,  and  some  cases  from  that 
form  occur.  Genitives  and  datives  after  the  analogy  of  the 
regular  forms  in  the  first  and  second  declensions  are  also  found ; 
as^  illae  for  illius  and  iVH,  eae  for  el,  Jme  for  huic,  etc.  libus, 
thus,  occur  for  els  ;  and,  as  fera.,  euhus.  In  early  Latin  are  found 
as  nominative  plural,  eeis,  ieis,  eis,  i,  heis,  his,  heisce,  hlsce. 

h.  The  interjection  ecce,  lo  !  is  compounded  with  ille,  iste,  and 
is  in   colloquial  language ;   producing  ecciUud,  eccistam,  ecca, 

eccum,  eccds,  etc. 

.  c.  An  intensive  suffix  -ce  is  added  to  various  forms  of  the 
demonstratives,  producing  forms  like  huiusce,  hance,  Iwrunce, 

illdce,  istosce,  Usee. 

d.  When  the  interrogative  ne  is  attached  we  have  forms  like 

hlcine,  haecine,  illaeeine,  etc. 

e.  Sometimes  the  e  from  -ce  is  dropped,  producing  from  iste 

the  following  forms  :  — 


80 


INFLECTION. 


Plural. 

M.  F.  N. 

istaec    


istaec 


Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 

N.  istic  istaec  istic  or  istuc 
Ac.  istunc  istanc  istoc  or  istuc 
Ab.  ist5c      istac       ist5c 

Similar  forms  occur  for  ille  ;  and  hdrunc,  hdnmc  from  hfc. 

f.  The  genitive  inodl  is  combined  with  the  genitive  of  the 
demonstratives  to  indicate  of  this  or  that  kind.  Thus  :  huiiiS' 
modi  or  huiascemodi,  of  this  kind ;  eiusniodl,  of  such  a  kind, 
that  kind,  etc. 

Note.  It  will  be  seen  that  ille  and  iste  are  alike  in  their  declensions, 
that  }iic  differs  from  them  only  in  having  the  C  of  the  suffix  -ce  in  certain 
forms,  and  that  is  differs  only  in  the  nominative  singular  masculine  and 
neuter,  and  tlie  accusative  singular  neuter. 

Uses  of  the  Demonstratives. 

181.  (1.)  //!c,  this,  is  used  to  denote  that  which  is  near 
the  speaker  in  thouj^ht,  space,  or  time,  or  in  a  written  or 
spoken  sentence,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  demonstra- 
tive of  the  first  person. 

(2.)  Tile,  that,  is  used  to  denote  that  which  is  far  from 
the  speaker,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  demonstrative  of 
the  third  person. 

(3.)  Iste,  this,  that,  denotes  that  which  is  too  far  from 
the  speaker  for  luc  and  too  near  for  ille,  often  marking 
that  which  is  near,  or,  which  concerns,  the  person  addressed. 
It  is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  demonstrative  of  the 
second  person.  It  frequently  refers  to  a  point  under  dis- 
cussion between  two  persons,  or  to  an  opponent  in  argu- 
ment, especially  in  law  matters,  and  therefore  sometimes 
implies  contempt. 

(4.)  When  Jvic  and  ille  are  used  to  refer  to  two  things 
in  the  same  passage,  hic  more  commonly  refers  to  the 
thin^  last  mentioned,  and  ille  to  the  one  first  mentioned  ; 
but  if  the  one  first  mentioned  is  more  important  (i.  e., 
nearer  the  thought  of  the  speaker),  hic  refers  to  that, 
and  ille  refers  to  the  other. 


PRONOUNS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES.  —  INTENSIVES.       81 


(5.)  The  following  examples  will  make  these  distinc- 
tions clearer :  — 

Dintius  in  hac  vita  esse  non  possum,  I  cannot  stay  longer  in 

this  life. 

Haec  nostra  studia  ;  ista  tna  studia,  these  (are)  our  pur- 
suits, those  your  pursuits. 

EgS  enim  istuc  ijjsutn  vereorne  malum  sit,  non  died  carere 
sensu  sed  carendum  esse,  for  I  am  afraid  that  this  very  thing  is 
an  evil ;  I  do  not  mean  the  being  without  sensation  itself  but 
the  necessity  of  being  so  (Cic,  Tf/sc,  i.,  12,  26). 

a.  Q.  Catulus,  non  antlqno  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  em- 
ditus,  Quintus  Catulus  trained  not  in  that  old  fashioned  style, 
but  in  this  of  ours. 

Ignavia  corpus  hehetat,  labor  f'lrmat ;  ilia  matarat  senectii- 
tern,  hic  longam  adulescentiam  reddit,  inactivity  dulls  the  phy- 
sical forces,  work  strengthens  them ;  the  one  hastens  old  age,  the 
other  prolongs  youth. 

Melior  est  certa  pax  quam  sperata  victoria  ;  haec  in  tua, 
ilia  in  deorum  manTt  est,  certain  peace  is  better  than  victory 
hoped  for ;  the  peace  is  in  your  hands,  the  victory  in  the  hands 
of  the  gods. 

For  the  special  uses  of  the  demonstratives  see  Syntax,  450. 


Intexsives. 
182.  The  intensive  pronouns  are  thus 

ipse,  self. 
Singular. 


declined  :  — 


M. 

N.  &  V.  ipse 
Gen.         ipsius 
Dat.  ipsi 

Ace.         ipsum 
Abl.  ipso 

N.&V.  ipsi 

Gen.  ipsorum 

D.  &  A.  ipsis 

Ace.  ipsos 


F. 

ipsa 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsam 

ipsa 

Plural. 

ipsae 
ipsarum 
ipsis 
ipsas 


N. 

ipsum 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsum 

ipso 

ipsa 
ipsorum 
ipsis 
ipsa 


82 


INFLECTION. 


N.  &  V.  idem 

Gen.  eiusdem 

Dat.  eidem 

Ace.  eundem 

Abl.  eodem 


idem,  the  same. 

Singular. 

eadem 

eiusdem 

eidem 

eandem 

eadem 

Plural. 


idem 

eiusdem 

eidem 

idem 

eodem 


eadem 

eorundem, 

eisdem 

(iisdem) 
eadem 


N.  &  V.  eidem  (iidem)  eaedem 

Gen.         eorundem  earundem 

D.  &  A.  eisdem  eisdem 

(iisdem)  (iisdem) 

Ace.         eosdem  easdem 

a.  Isdem  and  Idem  occur  as  nominative  plural  masculine, 
and  other  rare  forms  are  occasionally  met.  See  Buecheler's 
Grundriss. 

Note.  It  will  be  seen  that  ipse  is  declined  like  iste  and  ille  except  in 
the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  neuter,  and  in  having  a  vocative. 
Idem  is  formed  from  is  with  the  demonstrative  sufl&x  -dem. 

Relatives,  Interrogatives,  and  Indefinites. 

183.  The  relative  qiii^  who,  the  interrogative  quis  (qnl'), 
who,  and  the  indefinite  qiiis  {qui},  any  one,  are  formed 
from  the  same  stem,  and  most  of  their  forms  are  the 
same.  The  indefinite  quis  occurs  chiefly  with  the  particles 
si,  nisi,  Tie,  num  ;  otherwise  the  compound  aliquis  takes 

its  place. 

184.  The  relative  qui,  the  interrogative  quis,  and  the 
indefinite  aliquis  are  thus  declined  :  — 

qui,  who.  Q^8,  who  ? 

Singular. 
M.  F.  N.  M.  F.  N. 

Nora,  qui  quae  quod  quis  (qui)  quae  quid  (quod) 

Gen.    cuius         cuius  cuius  cuius  cuius         cuius 

Dat.    cut  cui  cut  cui  cui  cui 

Ace.    quem        quam         quod  quem  quam         quid  (quod) 

Abl.    quo  (qui)  qua  (qui)  qu5  (qui)  quo  (qui)  qua  (qui)  quo  (qui) 


RELATIVES,  INTERROGATIVES,  AND   INDEFINITES.      83 

Plural. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

Nom. 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

D.  &  A. 

qui  bus 

quibuH 

quibus 

Ace 

quos 

qiias 

quae 

a.  The  indefinite  quis  is  decUned  just  like  the  interrogative. 


aliquis,  any,  some. 

Singular. 
M.  F. 

Nom.       aliquis  (aliqui)  aliqua 

Gen.        alicuius  alicuius 

Dat.        alicui  alicui 

Ace.         aliquem  aliquam 

Abl.         aliquo  aliqua 


N. 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

aliciiius 

alicui 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

aliquo 


Nom.       aliqui 
Gen.        aliquorum 
D.  &  A.  aliquibus 
Ace.         aliqu58 


Plural. 

aliquae 
aliquarum 
aliquibus 
aliquas 


aliqua 
aliquSrum 
aliquibus 
aliqua 


h.  In  the  interrogative  and  indefinite  pronouns  the  forms  quis^ 
quid,  aliquis,  aliquid,  are  used  substantively,  the  forms  quly 
quod,  aliqui,  aliquod,  adjectively. 

c.  The  ablative  form  qui  is  also  occasionally  found  as  a  plural. 
Its  chief  use  is  as  an  ablative  of  manner  (see  410),  meaning 
"  how  ?  "  or  combined  with  cum  ;  as,  quicum,  with  whom. 

d.  Old  forms  for  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  queis  and 
quis. 

e.  Quis  is  sometimes  found  as  a  feminine  in  the  comic  writers, 
and  even  as  a  neuter.  So  the  compounds  —  quisque,  each  ;  quis- 
nam,  who  in  the  world ;  and  quisquam,  any  one,  are  found  as 
ferainines. 

/.  When  two  only  are  referred  to,  uter  (see  145  and  146), 


1 


84 


INFLECTION. 


not  quis,  is  the  interrogative  used.     So  uterque  means  "  each  " 
(of  two),  quisquey  "  each  "  (of  several). 

Note.     It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  three  pronouns  have  forma  with 
S-  stems,  with  O-  stems,  and  with  i-  stems. 

185.  There  are  two  compound  relative  pronouns,  qui- 
cumque  and  quisquis,  meaning  '*  whoever."  Quicumque 
is  declined  like  qui,  Quisquis  is  used  only  in  certain 
forms,  as  follows :  — 


H. 


Nom.  quisquis 
Ace.     quemquem 
Ahl.     quoqu5 


Singular. 

F. 

(quisquis) 


N. 


quaqua 


quidquid  (quicquid) 
quidquid  ''(quic<luid) 
quoquo 


4 
* 


Plural.  ♦ 

Nom.  quiqui 

Dat.     quibusquibus 

a.  Modi  is  joined  to  quisquis,  as  to 'the  demonstratives,  but 
in  an  old  form  of  the  genitive,  cuiciihnodi,  of  whatever  kind. 

h.  Indefinite  interrogatives  are  formed  from  quis  by  various 
particles  ;  as,  ecquis,  numquis,  any  one  ?  Quisnam,  who,  pray  ? 
is  emphatic  for  quis.  These  words  are  common  only  in  certain 
cases,  and  are  often  written  as  two  words.  The  feminine  nomi- 
native singular  and  neuter  nominative  and  accusative  plural 
generally  end  in  qiia,  not  quae. 

c.  So  various  quasi-compounds  are  formed  from  the  indefinite 
quis ;  as,  stquis,  nequis,  often  written  separately ;  quUibety 
quwts,  quispiam,  quisquam,  qu'idam,  with  quisque,  each,  and 
Tinusquisque,  each  and  all.  They  are  all  decUned  like  quis,  but 
qtiisqicam  is  not  used  in  the  feminine  nor  in  the  plural,  and 
quispiam  has  in  the  plural  only  the  feminine  noniinative  quae- 
piam.    A  form  unumquidquid  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Lucretius. 

d.  The  order  of  the  indefinite  pronouns  from  less  to  greater 
definiteness  is  as  follows  :  — 


. 


/ 
< 


PRONOUNS.  —  POSSESSIVES.  85 

quisquam^  any  one  whatever. 

quiUbet. )  , 

_  _       h  any  you  please. 
quiois,     ^      -f  >> 

quis,  any. 

aliquis,  some  one  or  other,  any  one. 

quispiam,  some  one. 

quldam,  some  particular  one. 

Note.  Quo-  was  the  old  form  of  spelling  for  CU-  in  these  pronouns 
(of.  59,  c),  so  that  we  find  in  inscriptions  and  in  Plautus  and  Terence  quoins 
(originally  trissyl.),  and  then  quuius  (dissyl.),  for  cHius,  quoi  for  cm,  quoivis 
for  cuivis,  etc. 

For  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Syntax,  454  ff. 

POSSESSIVES. 

186.  (1.)  Possessives  are  formed  from  the  personal 
pronouns  (includinfj^  the  reflexive),  and  from  the  inter- 
rogative (and  relative).  Thus:  mens,  my;  tuus,  thy, 
your ;  suus,  his,  hers,  etc. ;  noster^  our ;  vester,  your ; 
cuius  (relative  and  ieterrogative),  whose. 

(2.)  They  are  declined  regularly,  meus,  mea,  meum, 
etc. ;  noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  etc. :  except  that  the  voca- 
tive singular  masculine  of  7??f?/.s  is  generally  mi  (other- 
wise meus  like  nominative)  ;  the  others  have  no  vocative. 

a.    Cuiics  is  used  only  in  a  few  forms,  as  follows :  — 

Sing.  Plural. 

p. 
cuiae 
cuias 


M. 

F. 

N. 

Nom. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

cuius 
cuimn 

cuia 

cuiam 

cuia 

cuium 

b.  The  suffixes  -met  and  (chiefly  in  the  ablative)  -pte  are 
sometimes  annexed  to  the  possessives  to  give  them  emphasis. 
Thus  :  tiiismet,  meapte,  etc.  y' 

Note.  Old  forms  of  the  genitive  plural  of  the  possessive  pronouns  in 
-una  for  -orum  occur  in  comedy ;  as,  meum,  vostrum.  Sovos,  sova,  sovom, 
are  found  in  inscriptions,  for  suus,  sua,  suum.  The  older  spellings  of  cuius, 
-a,  -urn,  were  quoins,  -a,  -urn  (originally  trissyl.),  quoius,  -a,  -um  (dissyl.) 
(cf.  185,  note). 


8G 


INFLECTION. 


en 

i 

I 

0 

i. 

u 

0 

• 

•  fH 

§J  5  • - 

s:  **  -^ 

®    ^    SJ 

-    ^    1 

c    a    '>«s 

1  «  -5 

:  -s:  ^  -: 

*   ~   ?   ? 

,;S   .—   .X     '^ 

s 

s 

s 

a 

& 

00 

> 

00 

C 
9 

H 

•-• 

a 

1   1l 

0 

CO 

a 

C     V. 

10  ^ 

S 
0 

«o 

0 

'2   s^ 

-    s 

c 

-«: 

s 

0 

• 

.2*  » 

0 
S 

3 
u 

"a 

c 

u 

0 

-Si 
to   ^ 

W            ^«^ 

3     $ 

15 

'«» 
"«* 

a 

2 
i» 

■«^ 
0 
3 

.2* 
13 

• 

3 

•  • 

•  • 

O 

o 

I 

'■4-3 

> 

H 

■< 

M 

s;          o 

• 

1 

• 

0 

i 

Si 

1 

to 

c 

• 

to 

4 

3    a    ?j 

•  • 

l-H 

1 

CM 

PJ 

■< 
H 

pa 
O 

1:    --^  oT 
=  1  ^  = 

01   -<     3     3 
3     S    3    ly 

3 
C 

3 

3-    ©    to 

life 

:-it 

0 

s 

3 

E 

• 

to 

1 

3 

3 

3 

^» 

•* 

<D 

3 

cr 

S 

3 

to     3     « 

0    c    a 
-c   3   3 

o 

^     3     3     S 

3    c  cr  :r 

3 

0  0    , 

3      35    >«S 

-    3   ^ 
Z    -tJ     3 

=   2  -S 

IS 

3 

C" 

lO 

3 

10 

3 

lO 

3 

3 

W 

1:3 

3 

• 

10 

3 

5  .1  =- 

Si    ^    ^ 
OS     0     3 
3     3    *i 

J 

5* 

c  =r  3 

C 

C 

• 

3 

c 

cr  cr  3 

60 

0 

1     2-s 

• 

• 

'0 

1 

£      S3 

S   "?^     3     S 
'    *     3     3 

-5: 

*5        ^ 

i   ^    . 

^    3     » 

2=2 

• 

is" 

1 

e 

3 

2 

10 

3 

t 

i 

• 

S 

3 

li 

3*"  '2     "^ 

a   0     ^ 

3   3  -ti 

•♦-*      ^      ,-*      ^j 

3     C    C    C 

• 

5*  S'^ 

• 

• 

cr 

c* 

3 

• 

c  cr  3 

en 

.2 

^ 

o      • 

*^ 

4j 

• 

^ 

o 

S  •'^ 

C3 

-~; 

■« 

^ 

•4-1 

■3 

w 

•"t^ 

K 

e 

• 

2 

> 

i 

Si; 

• 

13 

• 

3 
3 

S   §   S 

S 

O 

0)               ^    3 

0 

02 

r-'fc 

•* 

^. 

S   g^ 

§ 

s 

3     o     i  •— • 
O*!^     3     3 

t-   -3    -S    -S 
0—33 
*i    an    ci    ci 
S3  .iS    -M    >j 

60 

s  2  -^ 

•■-♦-> 

+j  -^  :^ 

13 

0) 

E 

ID 

3 

C9     0    -tJ 
*J    ^  •-« 

t3 

s 

o 

1 

> 

9.. 

1 

0..    w. 

1 

^0 

•h 

o 

•  • 
>-< 

H 

•< 

i 

'A 

hi 

is 

2>i    -^ 

1   "S    ^ 

1 

3J 

^  i 

• 

00 

rH 

> 

i  4  i  i 

•«-)     3     3     3 

"is 

Z    0  >i-r 

ID 

10     =■   l:« 

1^ 

10 

TS 
C 
c« 

el  J 

cfl    0      , 

O! 

3 

3     3^ 

3 

3     ^ 

'     3 

c 

3 

S,  2.  -S 

r^; 

3    c  c  a' 

C    w"    w"    3 

cr 

cr 

0* 

p 

O* 

c  o*  3 

PRONOUNS.  PATRIALS.  —  VERBS. 


87 


Patrials. 

188.  The  patrials  are  formed  from  the  stems  of  the 
possessives  not<tcr  and  cuiits,  and  indicate  the  country 
to  which  one  belongs.  Thus :  nostras,  of  our  country ; 
cuius,  of  what  country  ? 

a.  They  are  declined  regularly  like  adjectives  of  one  ending : 
nostras,  nostratis,  etc.,  but  are  used  only  in  certain  forms,  as 
follows :  — 


Singular. 

N.     nostras  cuias  (quoias) 

G.      nostratis  cuiatis 

j^c. cuiatem  (m.) 

Ab.   


Plural, 
nostrates     nostratia    cuiates  (m.) 


nostratibus 


Nostr'itis  and  cuiatis  also  occur  as  nominatives. 

Note.     A  f omi  vestrds,  of  your  country,  is  given  by  Priscian  and  other 
ancient  grammarians. 

VERBS. 

189.  Verbs  are  either  transitive  (transitiva)  or  in- 
transitive (intransitiva)* 

190.  A  transitive  verb  marks  an  action  as  directly 
apidied  to  an  object ;  as,  videt  leonem,  he  sees  the  lion. 

191.  An  INTRANSITIVE  vtxb  denotes  a  state  or  marks 
an  action  as  not  directly  applied  to  any  object ;  f  as,  sto, 
I  stand ;  dormit,  he  is  sleeping  ;  venhint,  they  come. 

192.  To  verbs  belong  voice  {genusX),  mood  (modus\ 
TENSE  (tempus\  PERSON  ipcrsdna\  and  number  (iiw 
merus^. 

*  Scientifically,  we  should  not  speak  of  verbs  themselves  as  transitive  or 
intransitive,  but  of  transitive  and  intransitive  uses  of  a  verb. 

t  An  intransitive  verb  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  an  apparent  object, 
^hich  is,  however,  really  an  adverbial  modifier ;  as,  "  I  slept  (for)  three 

hours.^^ 

X  So  called  from  a  false  analogy  with  gender  m  nouns. 


88 


INFLECTION. 


Voice. 

193.  (1.)  Voice  is  distinguished  as  active  (activum) 
or  PASSIVE  (^pasalvum). 

(2.)  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting. 
Thus  :    Caesar  Gallos  viclt^  Caesar  conquered  the  Gauls. 

(3.)  The  PASSIVE  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
upon.  Thus :  Gall'i  a  Caeaare  victi  sunt,  the  Gauls 
were  conquered  by  Caesar. 

a.  In  some  languages  there  is  also  a  special  form  to  represent 
the  subject  as  acting  upon  itself.  This  is  called  a  middle  voice. 
The  Latin  passive  seems  to  have  been  at  first  of  this  kind,  and 
a  few  instances  of  the  use  survived  in  classical  times.  Thus  : 
Androgel  galeayii  clipetque  uisigiie  decorum  induitur,  he  puts 
on  the  helmet  of  Androgeus  and  his  beautifully  ornamented 
shield  (Verg.,  Ae.^  ii.,  392). 

b.  The  place  of  the  middle  voice  is  generally  supplied,  how- 
ever, by  the  active  with  a  reflexive  pronoun.  Thus :  j^umls  se 
arbos  indiilt,  the  tree  clothes  itself  with  fruit  (see  Verg.,  C,  iv., 
143) ;  quocumque  te  animo  et  cdgltatidne  converteris  (future 
perfect),  whithersoever  you  turn  in  mind  and  thought  (Cic,  de 
Or.,  i.,  2,  6). 

194.  Intransitive  verbs  have  as  such  only  the  active 
voice.  In  Latin,  however,  they  may  be  used  impersonally 
in  the  passive.     (See  318,  3,  and  387.) 

195.  Some  verbs,  having  the  form  of  the  passive,  have 
the  meaning  of  the  active.  They  are  called  deponents 
(deponentia)  *     Thus  :  sequor,  I  follow  ;  morior,  I  die. 

a.  The  deponents  are  really  renmants  of  the  middle  voice,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  etymological  meaning  of  many  of  them ;  as, 
recordor^  I  remind  myself  (hence  "remember  "). 

196.  Four  verbs  have  the  active  form  in  the  tenses 
from  the  present  stem,  and  the  passive  form  in  their  other 

*  From  depond,  lay  aside,  because  they  have  laid  aside  the  active  form 
and  the  passive  meaning-. 


VOICE.  —  MOOD. 


89 


parts,  but  all  with  active  meaning.     They  are  called  semi- 
deponents  (^semi'depdjientia), 

a.  They  are :  audeo,  dare  ;  fido,  trust  (with  its  compounds)  ; 
gaudeo,  am  glad ;  and  soled,  am  wont. 

Mood. 

197.  There  are  three  moods  :  the  indicative  (indka- 
twus},  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  (^subiunctwus),  and  the  impera- 
tive (imperdtivus). 

Note.  The  infinitive  is  also  often  reckoned  amonj^  the  moods,  hut  it  is 
really  a  verbal  noun,  and  according  to  the  best  usage  at  present  is  treated 
with  the  other  noun  parts  of  tlie  verb.     (See  202  and  203.) 

198.  (1.)  The  INDICATIVE  is  used  to  speak  of  things  as 
they  are,  to  assert,  deny,  or  question  a  fact.  Thus :  venid, 
I  come  ;  audisne,  do  you  hear  ? 

(2.)  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  is  used  to  speak  of  things  as 
they  seem  in  the  mind,  to  represent  ideas  or  notions.  Thus 
the  subjunctive  expresses  a  purpose,  a  wish,  a  supposition, 
etc.     Examples  are  :  — 

Puerum  tnislt  qui  diceret,  he  sent  a  boy  to  say. 

UtinaTn  pater  adesset,  oh,  that  my  father  were  here. 

Faciat  ille  si  eum  roges,  he  would  do  it  if  you  should  ask  him. 

a.  The  difference  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive 
is   perhaps    most   clearly  seen    in    the    expression    of    a  cause. 
Thus :  — 
Indicative  :    JiSc  dixit  quod  venim  erat,  he  said  this  because  it 

was  true  ; 
Subjunctive  :  Hoc  dixit  qvod  venim  esset,  he  said  this  because 

(as  he  thought)  it  was  true.* 

(3.)  The  IMPERATIVE  is  used  to  express  a  command  or 
exhortation.  Thus :  haec  nuntiate  regi  vestro,  tell  this  to 
your  king ;  ama  iniTnicds  tiios^  love  your  enemies. 

*  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  against  supposing  that  the  subjunctive 
implies  that  a  thing  is  not  a,  fact.  It  expresses  only  as  an  idea  a  thing 
which  also  may  be  a  fact  or  may  not. 


90 


INFLECTION. 


VERB.  —  NOUN    AND   ADJECTIVE   FORMS. 


91 


Tense. 

199.  There  are  six  tenses:  the  present  (j^raesens^ 
ixMPERFECT  (jmperfectum)^  future  (^futururti)^  perfect 
(^perfectum^,  PLUPERFECT  (^jylusquamjyerfcctwni)^  and 
FUTURE  PERFECT  (^futuriim  exdctuni), 

a.  The  Latin  tenses  correspond  in  general  to  the  Enf^hsli 
tenses  of  the  same  names,  but  are  used  more  strictly.  It  sliouhl 
be  noticed  also  that  the  Latin  imperfect  is  mostly  confined  to  tlie 
progressive  sense  (was  doing,  having,  etc.),  while  the  Latin  per- 
fect serves  generally  for  the  English  inijierfect  as  well  as  per- 
fect. 

b.  AVhen  the  Latin  perfect  corresponds  to  the  English  perfect 
it  is  called  the  perfect  definite  or  present  perfect  ;  when 
it  corresponds  to  the  English  imperfect  it  is  called  the  histori- 
cal PERFECT. 

200.  The  tenses  are  divided  into  — 

(1.)  Primary  or  principal  tenses :  present,  perfect 
definite,  and  the  two  futures. 

(2.)  Secondary  or  historical  tenses :  imperfect,  his- 
torical perfect,  and  pluperfect. 

a.  Only  the  indicative  has  all  six  tenses ;  the  subjunctive  has 
no  future ;  the  imperative  has  only  the  present  and  the  future, 
the  latter  expressing  the  command  more  gently. 

Number  and  Person. 

20L  There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural, 
as  in  nouns,  and  three  persons,  the  first  denoting  the 
speaker,  the  second  denoting  the  person  spoken  to,  and 
the  THIRD  denoting  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

a.  The  imperative  has  in  the  present  only  the  second  person, 
in  the  future  the  second  and  third  persons. 

Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb. 
202.  (1.)  The  three  moods  with  their  various  tenses, 


1 


numbers,  and  persons,  form  what  is  called  the  finite 
VER  B  (  verb  urn  ftnituni) . 

(2.)  The  verb  has  also  three  noun  forms  and  two  ad- 
jective forms,  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Noun  forms :    Infinitive  {inflnltwus). 

Gerund  {gerundium). 
Supine  {supinum). 

b.  Adjective  forms  :    Participle  (/>ar^ici/?i?mi). 

Gerundive  {gerund'toum). 

Note.     These  five  parts  are  sometimes  classed  together  as  the  verbum 
infinitum. 

203.  (1.)  The  infinitive  is  chiefly  used  as  a  neuter 
noun  in  the  nominative  or  accusative  singular.     Thus :  — 

Humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

In  anirrio  habeo  Rdmam  ire,  I  intend  to  go  to  Rome. 

(2.)  The  infinitive  is  also  used  in  certain  special  con- 
structions (see  530  ff.),  and  has  three  tenses,  present,  per- 
fect, and  future.     Thus  :  — 

Pres.  dlcere,  to  say. 

Perf.  dlxlsse,  to  have  said. 

Fut.    dlcturics  esse.,  to  be  on  the  point  of  saying. 

204.  The  gerund  is  a  noun  of  the  second  declension 
(stem  ending  in  -ndo-),  used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of 
the  singular.  The  infinitive  supplies  its  nominative. 
Thus : — 

Venandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  hunting ;  fessus  venando, 
weary  with  hunting. 

But :  salubre  est  venari,  hunting  is  healthful. 

205.  The  supine  is  a  noun  of  the  fourth  declension 
(stem  ending  in  -tu-)  used  only  in  the  accusative  and  ab- 
lative singular.     Thus :  — 

Venid  rogatum,  I  come  to  ask  (for  asking). 
Difficile  intellectu,  hard  to  understand  (in  the  understand- 
ing of  it). 

For  the  syntax  of  the  supine  see  553  ff. 


92 


INFLECTION. 


CONJUGATION.  —  TENSE-STEMS. 


93 


206.  There  are  three  participles;  the  present  ac- 
tive, the  future  active,  and  the  perfect  passive. 
Thus :  — 

Pres.  Act.     dlcens,  saying. 

Fut.  Act.       dlctilruSj  on  the  point  of  saying. 

Perf.  Pass,   dlctus^  said  (having  been  said). 

a.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponent  verbs  generally  has  an 
active  meaning ;  as,  secutus,  having  followed.  So  also  the  per- 
fect participle  of  the  following  four  verbs :  — 

ceno,  dine  ;  cemitus^  having  dined. 

iuro,  swear  ;  lUrdtus,  having  sworn. 

poto,  drink  ;  potus,  having  drunk. 

prandeo,  breakfast ;  pratisuSy  having  breakfasted. 

207.  (1.)  The  gerundive  is  an  adjective  of  the  first 
and  second  declension  (having  the  same  stem  as  the  ge- 
rund).    Thus:  amatuhfs^  docenduH, 

(2.)  Used  to  agree  with  a  subject  in  the  nominative  or 
accusative,  it  denotes  necessity  or  obligation.     Thus :  — 

Docendus  est  puer^  the  boy  must  be  taught. 

Vir  venerandus,  a  man  to  be  revered. 

Dixit  id  faciendum  esse,  he  said  it  must  be  done. 

(3.)  In  other  situations  the  idea  of  obligation  is  more 
hidden.     Thus :  — 

Ad  pdcem  petendam  venit,  he  came  to  ask  for  peace  (t.  e., 
with  regard  to  the  peace  to  be  asked  for). 

Urbis  condendae  consilium,  the  design  of  founding  a  city. 

a.  Tn  late  Latin  the  gerundive  became  a  future  passive 
participle.  Faciendiis  would  then  mean  merely  *"  on  the  point 
of  being  done." 

Conjugation. 
Tense-Stems. 

208.  Three  special  stems  —  the  present  stem,  the 
perfect  stem,  and  the  perfect  participle  stem  —  are 
distinguished  in  the  verb. 


M 


209.  From  the  present  stem  are  formed  in  both 
voices  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future  in  all  the  moods ; 
also  the  present  infinitive,  the  present  participle,  and  the 
gerund  and  gerundive. 

210.  From  the  perfect  stem  are  formed,  in  the  active 
voice  only,  the  perfect,  plu])erfect,  and  future  perfect 
tenses,  and  the  perfect  infinitive. 

211.  From  the  perfect  participle  stem  is  formed 
the  perfect  participle  passive,  which  with  the  parts  of 
esse,  to  be,  forms  in  the  passive  voice  those  tenses  which 
in  the  active  are  formed  from  the  perfect  stem. 

a.  The  supine  has  a  (noun)  stem  of  its  own,  and  the  future 
particij)le  has  a  derivative  (adjective)  stem.  The  future  infinitive 
active  is  formed  by  the  future  participle  with  esse.  The  future 
infinitive  passive  is  formed  by  the  supine  with  Iri  (the  present 
infinitive  passive  of  tre,  to  go).* 

b.  The  supine  and  the  perfect  and  future  participles,  though 
not  connected  in  derivation,  have  a  onechanical  similarity  of 
basis  which  helps  to  fix  them  in  the  mind. 

Thus  :  — 


Perf.  Part. 

Supine. 

Fut.  Part. 

recti^5 

veciicni 

veciurus 

cas?/5 

casMT/i 

ca^surtis 

flexw5 

^eyiuin 

fiexurus 

monit?^ 

momiinn 

momturus 

amat?/^ 

amat?<m 

a.mRtiirus 

*  The  parts  here  mentioned,  together  with  the  perfect  participle  and  the 
teases  formed  by  it,  have  been  commonly  grouped  together  and  derived 
from  a  so-called  supine  stem.  It  has  seemed  best  to  give  up  this  wholly 
unscientific  point  of  view,  but  not  to  depart  further  from  the  traditional 
explanation  of  the  verb  forms.  The  pupil  should  be  warned,  however, 
<hat  this  explanation  is  true  only  of  the  apparent  structirre  of  the  verb  in 
its  developed  stat«  as  met  in  literature.  Many  of  the  tenses  which  seem 
to  belong  to  the  same  stem  have  in  reality  very  varied  origins.  For 
instance,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  probably  does  not  belong  to  the  present 
stem  at  all,  but  grew  from  the  same  form  as  the  perfects  in  -8l. 


94 


INFLECTION. 


212.  The  following  table  shows  the  tenses  formed  from 
each  of  the  stems :  — 

PRESENT   STEM. 
ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indicative       Pres.,   Imp.,   Future.         Pres.y   Imp.,   Future. 

Subjunctive 

Imperative 

liifinitive 

Participle 

Gerund.     Gerundive. 


u 


n 


u 


u 


PERFECT    STEM.  PERF.  PART.  STEM. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indicative      Perf.,  Plup.,  Fut.  Perf.     Perf.,  Plup.,  Fut.  Perf. 


a 


ii 


a 
u 


a 


Subjunctive        " 

Infinitive 

Participle 

Future  part,  with  esse  —  Future  Infin.  Active. 
SupiXE  "     ir'i  —      **         "       Passive. 


Personal  Endings. 
213.  The  FINITE  forms  of  the  verb  have  the  following 


PERSONAL   ENDINGS  :  * 


(1.)  Indicative  (except  perfect)  and  Subjunctive. 


ACTIVE. 

Sing.  \st  Pers.  -m  or 

2d  Pers.  -s 

M  Pers.  -t 

Plur.  \st  Pers.  -mus 

2d  Pers.  -tis 

3fZ  Pers.  -nt 


PASSIVE. 

-r 

-ris  {shortened  -re) 

-tur 

-mur 

-mini 

-ntur 


*  These  personal  endinpfs  are  regarded  usually  as  remnants  of  the 
personal  pronoun  forms.  But  see  Brugmaun  in  Uandbuch  der  Altertums- 
wiss.,  ii.,  p.  72,  §  100. 


PERSONAL   I::NDINGS.  —  CONJUGATION   OF  SUM,        95 

(2.)  Perfect  indicative  active.* 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Pers.     -mus 

2d  Pers.      -sti  -stis 

M  Pers.     -t  -erunt  {shortened  -ere) 
(3.)  Imperative. 

present.  future, 

active.       passive.  active.         passive. 

Sing.  2d  Pers.      -re  -to  -tor 

M  Pers.  -to  -tor 

Plur.  2d  Pers.     -te  -mini  -t5te 

3cZ  Pers.  -nto  -ntor 

214.  The  ENDINGS  of  the  noun  and  adjective  forms 
of  the  verb  are  as  follows :  — 

Infinitives.  Participles. 

ACTIVE.  passive.  ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Pres. -re  -ri  (-i  m  o</ co/y'.)  f -ns  (-ntis)  

Perf. -isse  -tus  (-a, -um)  esse  -tus, -a-mn 

Fut.  -turus  (-a, -um)  esse  -turn  iri  -turus, -a, -um 

Gerundive  and  Gerund. 
-ndus,  -a,  -um,  etc. 

Supine. 
-turn,  -tu 

215.  sum,  I  am,  is  conjugated  as  follows :  — 
Pres.  Stem  es-  Perf.  Stem  fu- 


IXDICATIVE   MoOD. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

Plural, 
sumus,  we  are. 
estis,  you  are. 
sunt,  they  are. 

*  The  apparently  different  endings  of  the  perfect  indicative  are  due  to 
the  mixed  orijriii  of  that  tense,  and  can  be  best  explained  elsewhere, 
t  Sometimes  -rier  (-ier). 


Singular. 
sum,  I  am. 
es,  thou  art. 
est,  he  is. 


96 


INFLECTION. 


CONJUGATION   OF   SUM  AND   POSSUM. 


97 


eram,  I  was. 
eras,  thou  wast, 
erat,  he  was. 

ero,  I  shall  be. 
eris,  thou  wilt  be. 
erit,  he  will  be. 

fui,  I  have  been, 
fuisti,  thou  hast  been, 
fuit,  he  has  been. 


IMPERFECT. 

eramus,  we  were, 
eratis,  you  were, 
erant,  they  were. 

FUTURE. 

erimus,  we  shall  be. 
eritis,  you  will  be. 
erunt,  they  will  be. 

PERFECT. 

fuimus,  we  have  been, 
fuistis,  you  have  been, 
fuerunt  (-re),  they  have  been. 


4 


f 


PLUPERFECT. 

fueram,  I  had  been.  fueramus,  we  had  been, 

fueras,  thou  hadst  been.  fueratis,  you  had  been, 

fuerat,  he  had  been.  fuerant,  they  had  been. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

fuero,  I  shall  have  been.  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been, 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been.       fueritis.  you  will  have  been, 
fuerit,  he  will  have  been.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 

Subjunctive  Mood, 
present.  imperfect. 

sim  simus  essem         essemus 

SIS  sitis  esses  essetis 

sit  sint  esset  essent 


/ 


PERFECT. 

fuerim         fuerimus 
fueris  fueritis 

fuerit  fuerint 


PLUPERFECT. 

fuissem       fuisseinus 
fuisses        fuissetis 
fuisset        fuissent 


Imperative  Mood. 

present.  future. 

es,  be  thou,     este,  be  ye.  est5  estote 

esto  sunto 


Pres. 
Perf. 

Put. 


Infinitives. 
esse,  to  be. 
fuisse,  to  have  been. 


Participle. 


f uturus  esse  or  fore,     futurus,  -a,  -um,  on  the  point 
to  be  on  the  point  of         of  being, 
being. 

a.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  parts  of  sum  are  from  two  differ- 
ent roots,  Ves  for  the  tenses  from  the  present  stem,  the  e  dis- 
appearing in  various  forms,  and  s  between  two  vowels  becoming 
r  (see  67)  ;  and  Vfu  for  the  other  forms.  Fueram,  fuissem, 
etc.,  are  compounded  of  both  roots. 

b.  A  present  participle  sens  is  seen  in  the  compounds  absens 
and  praesens. 

c.  Old  forms  are  — 

Present  Subj. 


siem,  sies,  siet,  sient. 
fuam,  fuas,  fuat,  fuant. 
forem,  fores,  foret,  forent. 
fuverint. 


Imperf.  Subj. 

Perfect  Subj. 

PI u perf.  Subj.    fuvisset. 

Pei-f.  Indie.        fuvimus. 

Fut.  Indie.         escit,  escunt.* 

d.  Prdmm,  am  profitable,  retains  the  original  d  of  the  prepo- 
sition where  the  simple  verb  begins  with  a  vowel.  Thus: 
prosumy  prodes,  prodest,  etc. 

216.  possum,  compounded  of  potis,  able,  and  sum,  is 
conjugated  as  follows :  — 

Indicative  Mood. 

prpisent. 
Singular.  Plural 

possum,  I  can.  possumus,  we  can. 

potes,  thou  canst.  potestis,  you  can. 

potest,  he  can.  possunt,  they  can. 

*  Really  inceptive  presents. 


98 


INFLECTION. 


THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 


99 


poteram,  I  could, 
poteras,  thou  couldst. 
poterat,  he  could. 


IMPERFECT. 

poteramus,  we  could, 
poteratis,  you  could, 
poterant,  they  could. 

FUTURE. 

poter5,  I  shall  be  able.  poterimus,  we  shall  be  able, 

poteris,  thou  wilt  be  able.  poteritis,  you  will  be  able, 

poterit,  he  will  be  able.  poterunt,  they  will  be  able. 

PERFECT. 

potui,    I    have    been     able  potuimus,  we  have  been  able 

(could).  (could). 

potuisti,  thou  hast  been  able  potuistis,  you  have  been  able 

(couldst).  (could). 

potuit,   he    has    been    able  potuerunt    (-re),    they    have 

(could).  been  able  (could). 

PLUPERFECT. 

potuerain,  I  had  been  able,      potueramus,    we    had     been 

able, 
potueras,  thou   hadst  been      potueratis,  you  had  been  able. 

able, 
potuerat,  he  had  been  able,      potuerant,  they  had  been  able. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

potuer5,  I  shall  have  been  potuerimus,  we  shall  have  been 
able.  able. 

potueris,  thou  wilt  have  been  potueritis,  you  will  have  been 
able.  able. 

potuerit,  he  will  have  been  potuerint,  they  will  have  been 
able.  able. 

SuBjuNCTH^E  Mood. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

Singular.         Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

possim  possimus  possem  possemus 

possis  possitis  posses  possetis 

possit  possint  posset  possent 


j 


11 


PERFECT. 

potuerim     potuerimus 
potueris       potueritis 
potuerit       potuerint 


PLUPERFECT. 

potuissem    potuissemus 
potuisses      potuissetis 
potuisset      potuissent 


(No  Imperative.) 

IxFiNiTivEs.  Participle 

Pres.  posse  (used  only  as  adjective). 

Perf.  potuisse  Pres.  potens 

a.  Rare  forms  are  — 
Pres.  Indie,     potessunt. 

Pres.  Subj.      potessim,  potessit ;   possiem,  possies, 

possiet. 
Imper.  Subj.  potessem. 
Pres.  Infin.     potesse. 

b.  With  a  passive  infinitive  are  sometimes  found  — 

potestur,  poteratur,  possetur. 

The  Four  Conjugations. 
217.  Eegular  Verbs  are  divided  into  four  conjugations, 
distinguished  by  the  vowel   before  the   ending  (-re)  of 
the  present  infinitive  active.     Thus :  — 

Conjugation.  Infinitive.  Vowel.* 

I.  amare  ft. 

II.  monere         §. 

III.  regere  f        e. 

IV.  audire  L 

a.  The  four  conjugations  are  produced  by  the  union  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  endings  with  different  kinds  of  verb-stems,  and 
are  therefore  strictly  only  one  conjugation.  Verbs  with  stems 
in  a-  belong  to  the  first  conjugation,  those  with  stems  in  e-  to 
the  second,  those  with  consonant  or  u-  stems  to  the  third,  and 
those  with  stems  in  i-  to  the  fourth. 

*  This  vowel  is  sometimes  called  the  chabacteristic. 
t  See  first  footnote,  page  100. 


/ 


100 


INFLECTION. 


b.  Between  the  verb-stem  and  the  ending  in  the  tenses  from 
the  present  stem  there  is  a  vowel  called  the  thematic  vowel. 
This  vowel  contracts  with  the  stem  vowel  in  the  first,  second, 
and  fourth  conjugations,  producing  a,  e,  i,  respectively.  In  the 
third  conjugation  it  appears  as  U  (older  o)  before  a  nasal  (m 
and  n),  and  as  e  (often  weakened  to  i)  before  other  consonants.* 

Formation  of  the  Three  Tense-Stems. 

218.  (1.)  In  the  first  and  fourth  conjugations,  and  in 
the  few  corresjwnding  verbs  of  the  second,  the  stems  show 
the  following  formations :  — 

a.  Present  stem  is  the  verb-stem  contracted  with  the  thematic 

vowel. 

b.  Perfect  stem  is  present  stem  -[-  '^• 

c.  Perfect  participle  stem  is  present  stem  -|-  "to- 

Thus :  — 

amare  \^  am  ama-  amav-  amato- 

flere  Vfle(v)  fle-  flev-  fleto- 

audire  V  aud  audi-  audiv-  audito- 

(2.)  But  in  the  second  conjugation  most  verbs  form  the 
perfect  stem  directly  from  the  root,  v  then  appearing 
as  u  after  the  root-consonant ;  their  perfect  participle 
stem  is  also  formed  directly  from  the  root  and  frequently 
has  an  intervening  i  before  the  ending.     Thus :  — 

docere  V  doc  doce-  docu-  docto- 

monere  \^  mon        mone-  monu-         monito-f 

219.  (1.)    In    the  third  conjugation  the  present  and 

*  The  third  conjugation  is  the  oldest,  and  shows  the  noun  orip^n  of  the 
infinitive  most  plainly,  namely,  that  it  is  really  the  dative  or  locative  of  a 
noun  like  genus  or  pignus,  dative  generl  and  pigneri.  Old  forms  of  the 
dative  in  e  occur  in  inscriptions. 

t  The  ori^n  of  this  i  is  uncertain.  It  may  be  the  thematic  vowel,  or  in 
some  cases  a  parasitic  vowel  (see  64),  or,  which  is  perhaps  most  likely,  it 
may  have  been  weakened  from  e ;  as,  tnonetum,  mon^tum,  monitum.  Words 
like  obsoletus  and  moneta,  with  the  series  of  nouns  in  -eturn,  —  vinetum,  quer- 
cetum,  etc., — beside  forms  like  mereto  in  inscriptions,  support  this  last 
view. 


VERBS.  —  STEMS.  —  PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 


101 


perfect  stems  present  various  peculiarities  which  can  best 
be  treated  in  detail  later.  The  commonest  forms  of  per- 
fect stem  are  those  in  s-,  and  those  which  have  the  same 
form  as  the  present  stem,  or  only  lengthen  the  stem-vowel. 
(2.)  The  perfect  participle  stem  is  formed  from  the 
root  except  in  the  case  of  the  derivative  u-  verbs,  where 
it  is  formed  from  the  stem  with  the  vowel  lengthened. 
The  t  often  appears  euphonically  as  s.     Thus :  — 

regere  V  rag  rege-  rex-  recto- 

fundere         V  f ud  funde-         fud-  fuso- 

statuere       V  sta  statue-        statu-  statuto- 

Principal  Parts. 

220.  The  principal  parts  of  a  Latin  verb  are  the 
Present  Indicative,  Present  Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative, 
and  Perfect  Participle.  In  the  case  of  passive  and  depo- 
nent verbs  the  perfect  participle  is  not  counted,  being  in- 
cluded in  the  perfect  indicative. 

Note.  The  principal  parts  are  so  called  because  they  furnish  the  key 
to  the  conjugation  of  the  whole  verb.  The  present  indicative  names  the 
verb.  The  present  infinitive  is  also  used  to  name  the  verb,  as  in  English, 
but  its  more  important  function  is  to  show  to  which  conjugation  the  verb 
belongs.  The  three  stems  are  shown  by  the  infinitive,  the  perfect,  and  the 
perfect  participle. 

221.  The  principal  parts  in  the  four  conjugations  are 
as  follows :  — 


Conjugation. 
I. 

II. 


III. 

IV. 


Pres.  Ind. 


Pres.  Inf. 

amare 

flere 

docere 

monere 

regere 

fundere 

statuere 

audire 


Perf.  Ind. 

amavi 
flevi 

do  GUI 

monui 

rexi 

fudi 

statu! 

audivi 


Perf.  Part. 

amatus 
fletus 
doctus 
monitus 
rectus  * 
fusus  * 
statutus  * 
auditus 


*  These  examples  show,  of  course,  only  a  few  of  the  stem  forms  in  this 
conjugation. 


102 


INFLECTION. 


222.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

I.  Conjugation.  II.  Conjugation. 

amare,  flere,  monere, 

to  love  to  weep  to  put  in  mind 


Principal  Paets. 

Pres.  Ind. 

am5 

fleo 

moneo 

Pres.  Infin. 

amare 

flere 

monere 

Perf.  Ind. 

amavi 

flevi 

monui 

Perf.  Part. 

anriatus 

fletus 

monitus 

Indicative  Mood. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular 

amo 

fleo 

moneo 

amas 

fles 

mones 

amat 

flet 

monet 

Plural 

amaiuus 

flemus 

monemus 

amatis 

fletis 

monetis 

am  ant 

flent 

IMPERFECT. 

monent 

Singular 

amabam 

flebam 

monebam 

amabas 

flebaa 

monebas 

amabat 

flebat 

monebat 

Plural 

amabamus 

flSbamus 

monebamus 

amabatis 

flebatis 

monebatis 

amabant 

flebant 

FUTURE. 

monebant 

Singular 

arnabo 

flebo 

monebo 

v^ 

amabis 

flebis 

monebis 

amabit 

flebit 

monebit 

Plural 

amabimus 

flebimns 

monebimus 

amabitis 

flebitis 

monebitis 

a.mabunt 

flebunt 

monebunt 

REGULAR   PARADIGMS   OF  CONJUGATION. 


103 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 
m.  Conjugation.  IV.  Conjugation. 


regere, 
to  rule 

capere, 
to  take 

venire, 
to  come 

audire, 
to  hear 

Principal  Parts. 

rego 
regere 
rexi 
rectus 

capi5 
capere 
cepi 
captus 

venio 
venire 
veni 
ventimi  * 

audio 
audire 
audivi 
auditus 

Indicative  Mood. 

PRESENT   tense. 

rego 

regis 

regit 

capio 
capis 
capit 

venio 
venis 
venit 

audi5 
audis 
audit 

regimus 

regitis 

regunt 


capimus 

capitis 

capiunt 


venimus 

venitis 

veniunt 


aucHmus 

auditis 

audiunt 


IMPERFECT. 


regebam 

regebas 

regebat 

regebam  us 

regebatis 

regebant 


capiebam 

capiebas 

capiebat 


veniebam 

veniebas 

veniebat 


audiebam 

audiebas 

audiebat 


capiebamus    veniebamus  audiebamus 
capiebatis       veniebatis     audiebatis 
capiebant        veniebant      audiebant 


FUTURE. 


regam 

reges 

reget 

regemus 

regetis 

regent 


capiam 

capies 

capiet 

capiemus 

capietis 

capient 


veniam 

venies 

veniet 

veniemus 

venietis 

venient 


audiam 

audies 

audiet 

audiemus 

audietis 

audient 


•  Used  only  impersonally,  since  venire  is  an  intransitive  verb.     (Cf.  194.) 


} 


104 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


amavi 

amavisti 

amavit 


INFLECTION. 
PERFECT. 

flevi 

flevisti 

fievit 


amavimus 
amavistis 
amaverunt 
(-ere)* 


flevimus 
flevistis 
fleverunt 
(-ere) 


PLUPERFECT. 

amaverara        fleveram 


amaveras 
amaverat 


fleveras 
fieverat 


amaVeramus    fleveramus 
amaveratis       fleveratis 
amaverant       fleverant 


amavero 
am  averts 
amaverit 


FUTURE    PERFECT. 

flevero 

fleveris 

fleverit 


amaverimus    fleverimus 
amaveritis        fleveritis 
araaverint        fleverint 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRESENT. 

amem  fleani 

ames 

amet 


fleas 
fleat 


am  emus 

ametis 

ament 


fleamus 

fleatis 

fleant 


monui 

monuisti 

monuit 

monuimus 
monuistis 
monuerunt 
(-ere) 


monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 


monuero 

monueris 

monuerit 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


moneam 

moneas 

moneat 

moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 


*  The  forms  in  -ere  are  rare  in  prose,  except  in  the  historians. 


REGULAR   PARADIGMS   OF   CONJUGATION, 


105 


PERFECT. 

rexi 

rexisti 

rexit 

cepi 

cepisti 

cepit 

veni 

venisti 

venit 

audivi 

audivisti 

audivit 

reximus 
rexistis 
rexerunt 
(-ere)* 

cepimus 
cepistis 
ceperunt 
(-ere) 

venimus 
venistis 
venerunt 
(-ere) 

audivimus 
audivistis 
audiverunt 
(-ere) 

PLUPERFECT. 

rexeram 

rexeras 

rexerat 

ceperam 

ceperas 

ceperat 

veneram 

veneras 

venerat 

audiveram 

audiveras 

audiverat 

rexeramus 

rexeratis 

rexerant 

ceperamus 

ceperatis 

ceperant 

veneramus 

veneratis 

venerant 

audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 

FUTURE 

PERFECT. 

rexero 

rexeris 

rexerit 

cepero 

ceperis 

ceperit 

venero 

veneris 

venerit 

audiverS 

audiveris 

audiverit 

rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 

ceperimus 

ceperitis 

ceperint 

venerirnus 

veneritis 

venerint 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRFi?ENT. 

regam 

regas 

regat 

capiam 

capias 

capiat 

veniam 

venias 

veniat 

audiam 

audias 

audiat 

regamus 

regatis 

regant 

capiamus 

capiatis 

capiant 

veniamus 

veniatis 

veniant 

audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant 

♦  The  forms  in  -ere  are  rare  in  prose,  except  in  the  historians. 


106 

INFLECTION. 

IMPERFECT. 

Singular 

amarem 

amares 

amaret 

flerem 

fleres 

fleret 

monerem 

moneres 

moneret 

Plural 

amaremus 

amaretis 

amarent 

fleremus 

fleretis 

flerent 

perfect. 

moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 

Singular 

amaverim 

amaveris 

amaverit 

fleverim 

fleveris 

fleverit 

monuerim 

monueris 

monuerit 

Plural 

a.maverimus 

a,maveritis 

amaverint 

fleverimus 

fleveritis 

fleverint 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 

PLUPERFECT. 

Singular 

amavissem 

n.mavisses 

amavisset 

flevissem 

flevisses 

flevisset 

monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 

Plural 

am  a  vi  ssemus 

amavissetis 

a.Tnavissent 

flevissemus 

flevissetis 

flevissent 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 

Imperative  Mood. 

PRESENT. 

Sing.  2d  Per.     ama 

fie 

mone 

Plur.  2d 

Per.     a.mate 

flete 

monete 

future. 

Sing.  2d  Per.     amato 
3d  Per.      amatd 

fleto 
fleto 

moneto 
moneto 

Plur.  2d  Per.     amatote 
3d  Per.     amanto 

fletote 
flento 

monetote 
monento 

REGULAR  PARADIGMS   OF  CONJUGATION. 


107 


regerem 

regeres 

regeret 

regeremus 

regeretis 

regerent 


rexerun 

rexeris 

rexerit 

rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 


IMPERFECT. 

caperem  venirena 


caperes 
caperet 

caperemus 

caperetis 

caperent 


venires 
veniret 

veniremus 

veniretis 

venirent 


PERFECT. 

ceperim  venerim 

ceperis  veneris 

ceperit  venerit 


cepenmus 

ceperitis 

ceperint 


venerunus 

veneritis 

venerint 


rexissem 

rexisses 

rexisset 

rexissemus 

rexissetis 

rexissent 


PLUPERFECT. 

cepissem  venissem 

cepisses  venisses 

cepisset  venisset 


cepissemus 

cepissetis 

cepissent 


venissemus 

venissetis 

venissent 


audirem 

audires 

audiret 

audiremus 

audiretis 

audirent 


au<Hverim 

audiveris 

audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 


audivissem 

audivisses 

audivisset 

audivissemus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 


Imperative  Mood. 

PRESENT. 


rege 

cape 

veni 

audi 

regite 

capite 

venite 

FUTURE. 

audita 

reglto 

capita 

venito 

audits 

regito 

capito 

venito 

audito 

regitote 

capitote 

venitote 

auditote 

regunto 

capiunto 

veniunto 

audi  unto 

108 

INFLECTION. 

Infixttives. 

Pres. 

amare 

flere 

monere 

Perf. 

a.mavisse 

flevisse 

monuisse 

Future 

a-maturus 

fleturua 

moniturus 

(-a,  -um) 

esse      (-a,  -um)  esse 
Participles. 

(-a,  -um)  esse 

Pres. 

amans 

flens 

monens 

Future 

amaturus 

fleturus 

moniturus 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,  -um) 
Gerund. 

(-a,  -um) 

Gen. 

amandi 

flendi 

monendi 

D.  &  A. 

amando 

flendo 

monendo 

Ace. 

amandniri 

flendum 

SUPINK. 

monendum 

Ace. 

amatnm 

[fletum]  * 

monitum 

Abl. 

amatu 

fletu 

monitu 

k 


223.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

I.  Conjugation.  II.  Conjugation 

Principal  Parts. 
Pres.  Ind.  amor  doceor  t 

Pres.  Inf.  amari  doceri 

Perf.  Ind.  amatus  sum        doctus  siun 

Indicative  Mood. 

PRESENT. 


moneor 
moneri 
monitus  sum 


Singular    amor 

amaris  (-re)t 
amatur 


moneor 
moneris  (-re) 
monetur 


Plural 


doceor 
doceris  (-re) 
docetur 

docemur 
docemini 
docentur 

*  Not  found  in  actual  use  in  the  Latin  that  has  come  down  to  us. 

t  Meaning,  lam  taught.  The  active  voice  is  perfectly  regrular,  and  is 
omitted  only  because /eo  beside  moneo  furnishes  a  more  instructive  para- 
digm. 

X  The  forms  in  -re  are  rare  in  the  present  tense. 


amamur 

amamini 

amantur 


monemur 
monemini 
monentur 


REGULAR   paradigms   OF   CONJUGATION. 


109 


Infinitives. 
regere  capere  venire 

rexisse  cepisse  venisse 

recturiis  capturus  venturus 

(-a-,  um)  esse    (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse 

Participles. 
capiens  veniens 

capturus  venturus 

(-a,  -um)  (-a  -um) 

Gerund. 
capiendi  veniendi 

capiendd  veniendo 

capiendum      veniendum 

Supine. 
captum  ventum 

captu  ventu 


regens 
recturus 
(-a,  -um) 

regendi 
regendo 
regendum 

rectum 
rectu 


III.  Conj. 


regor 
regi 
rectus  sum 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 
IV.  Conj. 

Principal  Parts. 
capior  audior 

capi  audiri 

captus  sum     auditus  sum 

Indicative  Mood, 
present. 


regor  capior 

regeris  (-re)  t  caperis  (-re) 
regitur  capitur 

regimur  capimur 

regimini  capimini 

reguntur  capiuntur 


audior 
audiris  (-re) 
auditur 

audimur 
audimini 
audiuntur 


audire 
audivisse 
auditiirus 
(-a,-um)esse 

audiens 
auditiirus 
(-a,  -um) 

audiendi 

audiendo 

audiendum 

auditum 
auditu 


Deponent. 

miror  * 
mirari 
miratus  sum 


miror 

miraris  (-re) 
miratur 

miramur 

miramini 

mirantur 


*  Meaning,  I  wonder  at  or  admire. 

t  The  forms  in  -re  are  rare  in  the  present  tense. 


110 


Singular    amabar 
amabaris 


Plural 


(-re) 
amabatur 

amabamiir 

amabamini 

amabantur 


INFLECTION. 
IMPERFECT. 

docebar 
docebaris 

(-re) 
docebatur 

docebamur 

docebamini 

docebantur 


monebar 
monebaris 

(-re) 
monebatur 

monebamiir 
monebamini 
monebantur 


Singular    amabor 


Plural 


FUTURE. 

docebor  monebor 
amaberis  (-re)      doceberis  (-re)  moneberis  (-re) 

amabitur  docebitur  monebitiir 

docebimur  monebimur 

docebimini  monebimini 

docebuntur  monebuntur 


amabimur 

amabimini 

amabuntur 


Singular       amatus 

(-a,  -um) 


Plural 


amati 
(-ae,  -a) 


PERFECT. 

doctus 
(-a,  -um) 

docti 
(-ae,  -a) 


PLUPERFECT. 

Singular       amatus  doctus 

(-a,  -um) 


Plural 


amati 
(-ae,  -a) 


(-a,  -um) 

docti 
(-ae,  -a) 


FUTURE   PERFECT. 

Singular       amatus  doctus 

(-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um) 


Plural 


amati 
(-ae,  -a) 


docti 
(-ae,  -a) 


monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 

monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

moniti 
(-8^,  -a) 

monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 


4> 


I 

4 


n 


REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


Ill 


•   regebar 
regebaris 

(-re) 
regebatur 

regebamur 
regebamini 
regebantur 


IMPERFECT. 

capiebar  audiebar 


capiebaris 

(-re) 
capiebatur 


audiebaris 

(-re) 
audiebatur 


capiebamur  audiebamur 
capiebamini  audiebamini 
capiebantur    audiebantur 


mirabar 
mirabaris 

(-re) 
mlrabatuT 

mirabamur 
mirabamini 
mirabantur 


mirabor 


FUTURE. 

regar  capiar  audiar 

regeris  (-re)  capieris  (-re)  audieris  (-re)     miraberis  (-re) 

regetur  capietur  audietur  mirabitur 

regemur        capiemur        audiemur 

regemini       capiemini        audiemini 

regentur       capientur        audientur 


mirabimur 

mirabimini 

mirabuntur 


PERFECT. 

rectus         captus         auditus 
(-a,  -um)     (-a,  -um)       (-a,  -um) 


miratus 
(-a,  -ima) 


recti  capti  auditi  mirati 

(-ae,  -a)       (-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a)  (-ae,  -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

rectus  captus         auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)        (-a,  -ima) 


recti  capti 

(-ae,  -a)       (-ae,  -a) 


auditi 
(-ae,  -a) 


mirati 
(-ae,  -a) 


Tsum 

i  es 

(est 
(  simaus 

•<  estis 

(sunt 

{  eram 

<  eras 

(  erat 
eramus 

eratis 

erant 


FUTURE    PERFECT. 

rectus  captus  auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)       (-a,  -um) 


recti  capti  auditi 

(-ae,  -a)       (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a) 


.ero 

,  •<^  ens 

_  _ .-        (  erimus 
nu-ati        ) 
.  .    <  entis 


I 


112 


INFLECTION. 


'f 


REGULAR    PARADIGMS   OF   CONJUGATION. 


113 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRESENT. 

amer  docear  monear 

ameris  (-re)        docearis  (-re)    monearis  (-re) 
ametur  doceatur  moneatur 


Plural 


Plural 


amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


amarer 
amareris 

(-re) 
amaretur 

amaremur 

amaremini 

amarentur 


Singular      amatus 

(-a,  -um) 


amati 
(-ae,  -a) 


Singular      amatus 

(-a,  -um) 


amati 
(-ae,  -a) 


doceamur 
doceamini 
doceantur 

IMPERFECT. 

docerer 
docereris 

(-re) 
doceretur 

doceremur 
doceremini 
docerentur 

PERFECT. 

doctus 
(-a,  -um) 

docti 
(-ae,  -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

doctus 
(-a,-ima) 

docti 
(-ae,  -a) 


moneamur 

moneamini 

moneantur 


monerer 
monereris 

(-re) 
moneretur 

moneremur 
moneremini 
monerentur 


monitus 
(-a,  -ima) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 


monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 


:k 


^9 


f 


I 


Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRESENT. 

regar  capiar  audiar  mirer 

regaris  (-re)  capiaris  (-re)       audiaris  (-re)  mireris  (-re) 
regatur         capiatur  audiatur  miretur 


regamur  capiamur 
regamini  capiamini 
regantur       capiantur 


audiamur 
audiamini 
audiantur 


regerer 
regereris 

(-re) 
regeretur 


IMPERFECT. 

caperer  audirer 

capereris  audireris 

(-re)  (-re) 

caperetur  audiretur 


regeremur  caperemur 
regeremini  caperemini 
regerentur   caperentur 


audiremur 
audiremini 
audirentur 


miremur 
miremini 
mirentur 


mirarer 
mirareris 

(-re) 
miraretur 

miraremur 
miraremini 
mirarentur 


PERFECT. 

rectus           captus         auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)       (-a,  -um)     (-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um) 

recti              capti            auditi  mirati 

(-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a)  (-ae,  -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

rectus           captus         auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um) 

recti              capti            auditi  mirati 

(-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a)  (-ae,  -a) 


r  sim 

-<  sis 
(sit 


essem 

esses 

esset 

essemus 

essetis 

essent 


i 


114 


INFLECTION. 


r# 


REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION.    115 


Sing.  2  P.  amare 
Plur.  2  P.  amamini 


Sing.  2  P.  amator 
3  P.  amator 

Plur.  2  P.   


Imperative  Mood. 

PRESENT. 

docere 
docemini 

FUTURE. 

docetor 
docetor 


Imperative  Mood. 


monere 


monemini 


monetor 
monetor 


3  P.  amantor 


docentor 


monentor 


Infinitives. 
Present      amari  doceri  moneri 

Perfect      amatus  doctus  monitus 

(-a,  -um)  esse     (-a,  -um)  esse       (-a,  -um)  esse 


Future       amatum  iri      doctmn  iri 


Present 
Perfect 

Future 


monitum  iri 


Participles. 


amatus 
(-a,  imi) 


doctus 
(-a,  -xnn) 


monitus 
(-a,  -um) 


amandus 
(-a,  -um) 


Gerundive. 

docendus 
(-a,  -um) 


monendus 
(-a,  -um) 


i 


fi 


present. 

regere 

capere 

audire 

mirare 

regimini 

capiraini 

audimini 

FUTURE. 

miramini 

regitor 

capitor 

auditor 

mirator 

regitor 

capitor 

auditor 

mirator 

reguntor 

capiiintor 

audiuntor 

mirantor 

Infinitives. 
regi  capi  audiri  mirari 

rectus  captus  auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse 

(  miratimi  iri  * 


rectum  iri 


captum  iri         auditimi  iri  -l  miraturus 


Participles. 


rectus 
(-a,  -ima) 


captus 
(-a,  -imi) 


auditus 
(-a,  -um) 


regendus 
(-a,  -ima) 


Gerundive. 
capiendus  audiendus 


(  (-a,  -um)  esse 

mirans 
miratus 

(-a,  -um) 
miraturus 

(-a,  -um) 

mirandus  * 
(-a,  -um) 

Gerund. 
mirandi,  etc. 

Supine. 
miratum,  etc, 

*  The  gerundive  and  the  Infinitive  in  m  have  passive  meanings  even  in 
deponent  verbs.  Thus  :  hie  vir  mirandus  est,  this  man  must  be  admired  ; 
dixit  hoc  miratum  iri,  he  said  this  would  be  wondered  at.  So  also  some- 
times the  perfect  participle. 


(-81, -um) 


(-a,  -imi) 


116 


INFLECTION. 


224.  The  following  forms  can  always  be  recognized  by 
the  presence  of  certain  letters :  *  — 

1.  Imperf.  indie,  ba. 

2.  Fut.  indie,  in  1st  and  2d.  conj.,  b  not  followed  by  a. 

3.  Pres.  subj.,  t  except  in  1st  conj.,  a  before  personal  ending. 

4.  Imperf.  subj.  is  like  pres.  infin.  -|-  personal  ending. 

5.  Pluperf.  indie,  ra.  \ 

6.  Pluperf.  subj.,  isse  -f-  personal  ending.  >  In  the  active. 

7.  Perf.  infin.,  isse.  ) 

a.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  present  imperative  passive 
second  person  singular  has  the  same  form  as  the  present  infini- 
tive active.  Furthermore,  that  the  subjunctive  present  of  the 
first  conjugation  resembles  the  future  indicative  of  the  third 
and  fourth. 

b.  The  letters  ri  show  that  the  form  in  which  they  occur  is 
either  future  perfect  indicative  or  perfect  subjunctive  active. 

The  following  points  may  be  noted  in  addition  to  the  rules  of 
quantity  given  in  37-53. 

225.  In  the  penultimate  syllables  of  verb  forms  the 
following  vowels  before  a  single  consonant  are  long  :  — 

a  always  (but  see  dare). 

e,  except  before  r,  and  even  then  in  the  perfect  indicative  ac- 
tive and  in  the  i)resent  subjunctive  of  the  first  conjugation  and 
the  future  indicative  of  the  third  and  fourth. 

i  in  the  fourth  conjugation  and  analogous  forms. 

u,  except  in  sumiis  and  volumus  (with  their  compounds),  and 
the  old  forms  quaesumus,  aestumo,  etc.  (for  later  quaerlmus, 
aestimo^  etc.). 

*  To  trace  the  origfin  and  development  of  these  elements  in  verb-forms 
would  require  entering  more  fully  into  comparative  philology  than  is  possi- 
ble or  desirable  in  a  school  grammar.  They  may  be  found  discussed  in 
Max  Engelhardt's  Die  lateinische  Konjugation  nach  den  Ergehnissen  der 
Sprachvergleichung. 

t  The  first  person  singular  in  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations  cannot, 
however,  be  thus  distinguished  from  the  first  person  of  the  future  indica- 
tive, as  that  also  has  the  a. 


f 


<^i 


) 


« 


« 


n 


REMARKS  ON  THE  VERB  FORMS. 


117 


seco 

secare 

secxu 

peto 

petere 

petivi 

maneo 

manere 

mansi 

venio 

venire 

veni 

a.  The  characteristics  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conju- 
gations (a,  e,  D  are  always  long  except  when  shortened  in  final 
syllables  by  the  rules  given  in  46-50  ;  that  of  the  third  conju- 
gation (O)  ia  always  short. 

Remarks  on  tne  Verb  Forms. 

226.  Muny  verbs  belonging  to  a  given  one  of  the  four 
conjugations  (as  shown  by  their  present  infinitive)  form 
their  perfect  and  perfect  participle  stems  after  the  anal- 
ogy of  some  other  conjugation.     Thus :  — 

sectus 
petitus 

mansum  (neut.) 
ventuin  (neut.) 

Note.  Such  verbs  are  really  mixtures  of  two  verbs.  Some  of  the 
forms  of  the  root  verbs  (third  conjugation)  had  disappeared,  and  their 
places  were  taken  by  derivative  formations  of  the  first,  second,  or  fourth 
conjugation.  The  same  mixture  of  forms  accounts  for  the  perfects  in  -ui 
and  participles  in  -itus,  in  the  second  conjugation. 

For  lists  of  these  irregular  formations  see  233  ff. 

227.  In  the  tenses  formed  from  the  present  stem  the 
following  points  should  be  noted  :  — 

a.  Orior,  rise,  and  (chiefly  in  verse)  potior,  gain  possession 
of,  though  belonging  to  the  fourth  conjugation,  have  several 
forms  of  the  third.     Thus  :  — 

oreris,  oritur,  orimur,  oreretur,  orere. 
potitur,  potimur,  poti,  poteremur,  poterentur. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  7fwrior,  die,  and  some  compounds  of 
gradior,  step,  though  of  the  third  conjugation,  have  sometimes 
infinitives  in  -iri,  like  the  fourth. 

c.  The  imperfect  indicative  in  the  fourth  conjugation  some- 
times has  a  form  in  -ibam,  -ibas,  etc.  Thus  :  scibam,  from 
scire,  to  know. 

d.  The  future  in  the  fourth  conjugation  often  has  in  early 
Latin  a  form  in  -ibo,  -ibis,  etc.     Thus :  scibo. 

e.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  present  imperative  active 


118 


INFLECTION. 


has  no  final  -e  in  the  following  four  verhs :  died,  say ;  duco,  lead ; 
fero,  bring ;  facwy  do  or  make.  Thus  :  diCy  due,  fer,  fac.  So 
also  their  compounds,  except  the  compounds  of  facio  with  a 
preposition  ;  as,  confice,  from  conficid. 

Scio  has  no  present  imperative ;  nor  do  cupe  and  polle  occur, 
from  cupio  and  polled. 

f.  The  active  forms  of  the  future  imperative  occur  instead  of 
the  passive  in  the  early  writers  and  their  imitators.  This  is  es- 
pecially common  in  deponent  verbs.  An  ancient  form  in  -mind 
is  found  in  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present 
imperative  of  several  deponents  ;  *  as,  antestdmiiio,  let  him  sum- 
mon as  a  witness  ;  tu  prdgredimino,  you  go  ahead. 

g.  In  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations  the  gerund  and 
gerundive  often  retain  the  earlier  endings  -undum  and  -undus 
instead  of  -enduin  and  -endus,  especially  if  i  precedes.  Potl- 
undus  is  the  regular  form.  Ire,  to  go,  has  always  eundum  (see 
248). 

228.  Among  the  tenses  formed  from  the  perfect  stem 
the  following  points  require  notice  :  — 

a.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends  in  v-,  the  V  is  often  dropped, 
and  the  vowels  thus  brought  together  are  contracted  in  the  forms 
made  upon  the  pattern  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  if  s  follows, 
and  in  the  forms  of  other  conjugations,  if  s  or  r  follows  ;  as :  — 

audissem  for  audivissem 
amasti         "     amavisti 
implerunt  *'     impleverunt 


noram         *' 
nosse  " 

consuesse  " 


noveram 

novisse 

consuevisse 


h.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends  in  iv-,  the  V  is  sometimes 
dropped  without  contraction ;  as  :  — 

audiisse    for  audivisse 
petierunt    "    petivenint 

*  This  form  occare  once  from  a  passive  verb,  denuntiamino   (3d  pers, 
sing.),  let  it  be  proclaimed. 


PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATIONS. 


119 


c.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends  in  s-  or  x-,  shorter  forms 
occur  without  the  penultimate  syllables  -is-,  -iss-,  or  -sis-. 
Thus :  evastJj  exstinxfl,  surrexe,  accestis,  dixtt,  exstlnocem, 
beside  evasistly  exstlnxistl,  surrexisse,  accessistis,  dixisti,  ex- 
stinxissem.* 

d.  Ancient  forms  of  a  future  perfect  in  -s5,  and  of  a  perfect 
subjunctive  in  -sim,  formed  from  the  present  stem,  sometimes 
occur ;  as,  capso,  faxo,  habesso,  iusso,  levdsso,  recepso  ;  ausim, 
cdnfexirriy  dixlSy  emlssim,  faxim,  licessit,  locdssim.  So  also  the 
pluperfect  subjunctive  yoic^m. 

e.  A  future  passive  of  similar  form  occurs  rarely  in  ancient 
Latin  ;  as,  turbdssitur,  lussUur  ;  and  a  future  infinitive  active 
of  the  first  conjugation  in  -sere ;  as,  expugiidssere,  impetrdssere^ 

Periphrastic  Conjugations. 

229.  (1.)  T\iQ  future  participle  joined  with  the  forms 
of  sum  makes  what  is  called  the  active  periphrastic  con- 
jugation.    Thus :  — 

amatunis  sum.  I  am  on  the  point  of  loving,  am  destined 

or  intend  to  love,  etc, 
amaturiis  eram.  ero,  fui,  etc. 

a.  Fuerd  is  hardly  so  used. 

(2.)  The  gerundive  with  the  forms  of  sum  makes  what 
is  called  the  passive  periphrastic  conjugation  —  denoting 
what  must  or  ought  to  he  done.     Thus  :  — 

amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved,  or  ought  to  be  loved, 
amandus  eram,  ero,  fui,  etc. 

(3.)  The  perfect  participle  with  the  parts  of  sum  has 
sometimes  a  quasi-adjective  force.  Thus,  forms  like 
amatus  sum,  amatus  essem,  etc.,  may  be  simply  the  pas- 
sive tenses  of  completed  action,  or  the  verb  sum  may 
have  its  regular  time  and  the  participle  be,  as  suggested, 
a  kind  of  adjective. 

*  Some  of  these  were  perhaps  formed  from  the  present  stem  like  the 
f urnia  treated  in  </,  others  seem  to  have  come  from  the  regular  forms. 


120 


INFLECTION. 


STEM-FORMATION   IN  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


121 


I 


a.  The  distinctions  of   meaning  here   involved   can   perhaps 
best  be  made  plain  by  a  scheme  like  the  following  :  — 

C  Hist.  Perf.  He  teas  killed. 

(  Adjec.  &  Verb,  He  is  dead. 
The  wicked  are  suffering  pnn- 
punixintiir   mali   can   only  J       ishinent,  or  Men  punish  the 
mean  !       wicked  (always  or  when  they 

are  caught). 
I  was  laved  (fui.  Hist.  Perf.) 
amatus  fui  may  mean  -^  /  have   been  loved  (fm,    Perf. 

Def.) 

h.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  present  passive  is  expressed 
in  Latin  (1)  by  the  present  only  when  it  denotes  continued  or 
customary  action ;  as,  faenum  secatur^  they  are  cutting  hay  ; 
faenum  aestate  secatur^  hay  is  cut  in  summer  ;  (2)  by  the  per- 
fect when  it  denotes  a  state  ;  as,  faenum  sectum  est,  the  hay  is 
cut ;  volnus  curatum  est,  the  wound  is  dressed. 

Stem-Formation  in  Third  Conjugation. 

230.  The  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  may  be  classi- 
fied with  regard  to  their  present  stems  as  follows  *  :  — 

a.  Present  stem  is  the  root  (which  serves  also  as  the  verb 
stem)  -|-  the  thematic  vowel.     Thus  :  — 

regere  Vreg 

petere  Vpet 

b.  The  first  consonant  of  the  root  is  prefixed  with  i  (redupli- 
cation").     This  class  contains  very  few  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

gignere  Vgen  (or  in  weaker  form  vgn) 

c.  Present  stem  takes  t ;  as  :  — 

flectere  vflec 

*  These  formations  are  remnants  of  the  verb  forms  inherited  by  the 
Latin  from  Indo-European,  and  were  there  ori^nally  produced  by  forma- 
tive suffixes ;  but  of  course  no  thorough  discussion  of  them  can  be  given  in 
a  school  grammar. 


\ 


d.  Present  stem  takes  n.     Thus  :  — 

(1)  n  simply  added  to  roots   in   r-  (also  two  vowel   roots)  ; 

as : —  . 

spernere  Vsper 

linere  Vli 

sinere  Vsi 

(2)  n  added  to  roots  in  1  and  assimilated ;  as  :  — 

pellere  (for  pelnere)  Vpel 

fallere  (for  falnere)  Vfal 

(3)  n  inserted  before  a  final  mute  (palatal  or  dental)  ;  as :  — 

findere  "^^^ 

tangere  Vtag 

(4)  n  changed  to  m  before  a  labial  mute  ;  as :  — 

rumpere  vrup 
e.  Present  stem  takes  so- ;  as  :  — 

pascere  Vpa 

crescere  Vcre 

/.  Present  stem  takes  i- ;  *  as  :  — 

capio,  capere  Vcap 

facia,  facere  Vfac 

Note  1.     These  verbs  in  -16  occupy  a  sort  of  midway  position  between 
the  consonant  stems  of  the  third  conjugation  and  the  verbs  of  the  fourth 
conjugation,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing  the  following  verbs :  — 
lego  loKere  legi  lectus 

capio  capere  cepi  captus 

oupid  oupere  cupivi  cupitus 

venio  venir©  veni  ventum 

And  pariu,  parere,  beside  reperio,  reperire. 

Note  2.  A  few  verbs  show  more  than  one  of  the  formations  described. 
Thus:  dlscO  (for  di-dc-scd,  '^dec),  learn,  belongs  to  the  reduplicated  class 
and  to  the  so-  class. 

Note  8.  In  some  verbs  the  strengthened  forms  extend  further  than  the 
present  stem  and  sometimes  through  the  entire  verb,  as  in  iungo,  iungere, 
iunxi,  iiinctum,  Vtuj^,  and  in  most  of  the  t-  class  except  m'lttd. 

*  This  i  disappears  before  another  i  and  before  6,  unless  two  consonants 
follow,  as  in  the  present  participle,  the  gerund  and  gerundive.  (Cf.  the 
paradigm  above.) 


122 


INFLECTION. 


231.  The   perfect   stem    in   the    third    conjugation    is 
formed  in  the  following  ways :  — 

a.  The  perfect  stem  is  generally  the  same  as  the  present  stem 
when  the  present  stem  ends  in  u-  or  in  nd-.     Thus  : 

Verb.  Pres.  Stem.  Perf.  Stem. 

tribua  tribu-  tribu- 

scando  scand-  scand- 

b.  The  perfect  stem  adds  s  to  the  root : 

(1)  In   most  verbs  with  a  long  vowel  in  the  root  syllable. 
Thus :  — 

^SO  ng-  fi^. 

Iud5  lud-  lus- 

cedo  ced-  cess- 

dico  die-  dix- 

sumo  sum-  sumps- 

(2)  In  most  verbs  with  the  stem  syllable  long  by  position 
(except  those  in  nd-).     Thus  :  — 

carpo  carp-  carps- 

fingo  fing-  finx- 

(3)  In  a  few  other  verbs.     Thus  : 

coquo  coqu-  cox- 

Note.  Some  (mostly  roots  ending  in  a  middle  mute  —  g,  d  b)  also 
lengthen  the  root  vowel;  as,  rego,  rexl,Jiud,Jiixl  {>/Jiug),  Jingo,  fmxi. 

c.  The  stem  vowel  is  lengthened  in  many  verbs  with  a  single 
short  vowel  before  a  single  consonant  in  the  root  syllable,  a 
becoming  e,  except  before  b  and  v.     Thus  :  — 

emo  em-  em- 

fodio  fod-  f5d. 

fugio  fug.  fug. 

le^o  leg-  leg. 
ago  a«.  eg- 
capio  cap-  cep- 
scaba  scab-  scab- 
lava  lav-  lav- 
And  in  vinca  vine-  vic- 

d.  The  following  verbs  form  the  perfect  stem  by  reduplication. 


STEM-FORMATION    IN   THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


123 


The  initial  consonant  and  vowel  are  prefixed  to  the  root,  but 
if  the  root  vowel  is  a,  it  is  weakened  to  i  (to  e  in  falto,  pared, 
and  pario)  ;  if  ae,  to  i  ;  and  if  e  or  O  before  1,  to  U.  When 
the  root  vowel  is  thus  weakened,  the  vowel  of  reduplication  is 
alwavs  e.     Thus  :  — 

cada  cad-  cecid- 

caeda  caed-  cecld- 

cana  can-  cecin- 

curra  curr-  cucurr- 

disca  disc-  didic- 

falla  fall-  fefell- 

[paga]  pag-  pepig- 

parca  pare-  peperc- 

paria  par-  peper- 

peda  ped-  peped- 

pella  pell-  pepul- 

penda  pend-  pepend- 

pasca  pasc-  popaso- 

punga  pung-  pupug- 

sista  sist-*  stit- 

tanga  tang-  tetig- 

tenda  tend-  tetend- 

tolia  toll-  tetul-  (rare) 

tunda  tund-  tutud- 

Findo  and  scindo  have  dropped  the  reduplication,  making 

fidi  and  scidi.     Sclscidi  also  occurs. 

(1)  For   convenience   the   few  verbs   of   other  conjugations 

which  have  reduplicated  perfects  are  here  given :  — 

da  dare  dedi 

sta  stare  steti  f 

mordea  mordere  momordi 

pendea  pendere  pependi 

spondea  spondere  spopondi  f 

tondea  tondere  totondi 

*  The  si  of  the  present  stem  is  also  reduplication.  It  will  be  seen  that 
in  the  perfect  the  stem  syllable  loses  its  B  :    stitl  for  stisti. 

t  It  will  be  seen  that  the  st«m  syllable  loses  its  first  consonant  (s)  when 
.wo  consonants  are  prefixed  in  reduplication. 


124 


INFLECTION. 


(2)  Simple  reduplicated  perfects  have  the  first  two  syllables 
short,  except  cecidl  and  peped'i, 

(3)  Compounds  usually  drop  the  reduplication,  but  it  is  re- 
tained in  the  compounds  of  c/5,  sto,  disco,  posed,  and  sometimes 


curro.*     Thus :  — 

ded5 

dedidi  t 

c5nst6 

constiti  t 

circnmsto 

circnrnsteti 

perdisco 

perdidici 

expdsco 

expoposci 

decurro 

decucurri  or  decurri 

232.  The  perfect  participle  stem  ends  in  so-  instead  of 
to-  in  the  following  cases :  — 

a.  When  the  present  stem  ends  in  a  dental  mute.  A  short 
vowel  before  the  ending  is  then  generally  lengthened,  the  mute 
being  dropped.     Thus  :  — 

cad5  cad-  caso- 

rado  rad-  raso- 

fundo  fund-  fuso- 

Sometimes  assimilation  occurs  (cf.  66).    Thus  :  — 
fodia  fod-  fosso- 

b.  When  the  present  stem  adds  t.     Thus  :  — 

flecto  fleot-  flexo- 

c.  Several  stems  in  1  or  r.     Thus  :  — 

falls  fall-  falso- 

curro  ciuT-  curso- 

So  also     labor  lab-  lapso- 

d.  Palatal  stems  which  drop  the  palatal  before  s  in  the  per- 
fect.    The  palatal  is  also  dropped  in  the  partici})le.     Thus  :  — 

•    spargd  sparsi  sparsus 

*  Abscondo  has  oftener  ahscondi  than  abscondidi. 

t  The  penultimate  vowel  is  thus  weakened  in  compounds  of  these  two 
verbs  with  monosyllabic  prepositions. 


IRREGULAR   STEM-FORMATION,   FIRST   CONJUGATION.  125 


Irregular  Stem-Formation. 

233.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  FIRST  conjugation  which  form  their  perfect  or  perfect 
participle,  or  both,  irregularly :  — 

crepo  crepare         crepui  crepitum,*  make  a  noise. 

Discrepo  has  also  a  regular  perfect ;  increpo  has  regular  forms  and  also 
increpui,  increpitum. 

cubo  cubare  cubui  cubitum,  lie  down, 

Perf .  subj.  cubdris  and  perf .  infin.  cubdsse  occur.     See  also  under  235,  v. 

do  dare  dedl  datas,  gloe.-\ 

domo  domare         domui  domitus,  tarne. 

frico  fricare  fricul  frictus  ajul  fricatus,  mib. 

iuvo  iuvare  iuvi  iutus,  help. 

Also  iuvdturus. 

raico  micare  micui  glitter. 

Dimicd,  fight,  has  also  the  regular  forms,  and  emicdturus  occurs. 

neco  necare  necavi  or  necui     necatus,  kill, 

£necd  has  also  inectus. 

plico  plicare  plicatus  or  plicitus,  fold. 

Implied  and  explico  have  regular  forms  and  also  -plicui,  -plicitus.  So 
also  applied  and  eomplico,  except  that  compliedvi  is  not  found.  The  other 
compounds  are  regular. 

poto  potare  potavi  potatus  or  potus,t  drink, 

seco  secare  secui  sectus,  ciU,  secaturus. 

sono  sonare  sonui  sound. 

Some  compounds  have  -sondtdrus,  and  resono  has  resondvu 

sto  stare  steti  stand,  staturus. 

tono  tonare  tonu!  thunder, 

Attond  has  also  attonitus,  irUono  has  intondtus. 

veto  vetare  vetui  Yeiitua,  forbid. 

*  The  neuter  form  of  the  participle  is  given  when  the  verb  is  intransi- 
tive. 

t  Strictly  speaking,  dare  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  conjugations,  but 
it  is  usually  reckoned  as  of  the  first  because  of  its  ending  -are.  (Cf. 
240,  1.) 

I  Potus  is  really  the  participle  of  the  simple  verb  of  which  poto  is  a  fre- 
quentative, and  often  has  the  active  meaning,  having  drunk. 


126 


INFLECTION. 


234.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  SECOND  conjugation  which  form  their  perfect  or  per- 
fect participle,  or  both,  otherwise  than  in  -ui  and  -itus :  *  — 


a.  ab-oleo 
de-leo 
fleo 
neo 
-pleo  t 

b.  algeo 
ardeo 
audeo 
augeo 
caveo 
censeo 
cieo 


abolevi 
delevi 
flevi 
nevi 
-plevi  t 

alsi 

arsi 

ausus  sum 

auxl 

cavl 

censul 


abolitus,  efface. 

deletus,  blot  auty  destroy. 

fletus,  weep. 

netus,  spin. 

-pletus,t  JilL 

be  cold. 

arsum,  be  on  fire, 

ausus,  dare. 

auctus,  increase. 

cautus,  beware. 

census,  think. 

citus  (particlp.  adj.),  call. 


civi 
Among  compounds  occur  excitus  and  concitus,  but  accitus. 

doceo                    docui  doctus,  teach. 

fateor                     fassus  sum  fassus,  confess. 

faveo                     favi  fautum,  favor. 

ferveo  ferbui  boil.     (Cf.  235.) 

Fervo,  fervere,  fervi,  also  occurs.  (Cf.  235,   i.) 


foveo 

fovi 

fotus,  cherish. 

fulgeo 

fulsl 

shine,  gleam. 

gaudeo 

gavisus  sum 

gavisus,  rejoice. 

haereo 

haesi 

haesum,  stick. 

in-dulgeo 

indulsi 

indrdtus,  indulge. 

iubeo 

iiissi 

iussus,  bid,  order. 

luceo 

luxi 

shine,  be  light. 

Polluced  has  polluctum. 

lugeo 

luxi 

mourn. 

maneo 

mansi 

mansus,  stay,  wait  for. 

misceo 

miscui 

(  mistus,  ) 

•I               V  mix. 

(  mixtus,  ) 

inordeo 

momordi 

morsus,  bite. 

moveo 

movT 

motus,  mx)ve. 

mulceo 

mulsi 

mulsus,  soothe. 

Permulctus 

occurs.                 • 

♦  But  see  231,  rf,  1. 

t  In  compounds. 

IRREGULAR   STEM-FORMATION,  THIRD   CONJUGATION.     127 


mulgeo 

mulsI 

mulsus,  milk. 

paveo 

pavl 

fear. 

prandeo 

prandl 

pransus  (act.  meaning), 
breakfast,  lunch. 

reop 

ratus  sum 

ratus,  think. 

rideo 

rIsi 

rlsum,  laugh. 

sedeo 

sedi 

sessum,  sit. 

sorbeo 

sorbui 

suck  in. 

Absorbed 

has  absorpsi. 

stride  o 

stridr 

whiz.  (Cf.  235,  i.) 

suadeo 

suasi 

suasum,  advise. 

teneo 

tenui 

tentus,  hold. 

tergeo 

tersi 

tersus,  wipe. 

toiqueo 

toi*si 

tortus,  twist. 

torred 

torrui 

tostus,  roast. 

turgeo 

urgeo  (urgueo) 

tursi 

sweU.  (Cf.235,ii.) 

ursi 

video 

vidi 

visus,  see. 

voveo 

vovi 

votus,  vote. 

235.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  THIRD  conjugation,  arranged  according  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  perfect  stem  as  given  in  231 :  — 

i.  Perfect  stem  like  present  stem. 


acuo 
arguo 

bibo 
capesso 

-cendo  * 
congruo 
cudo 


acui 
argul 

bibi 
(  capessi  and  ) 
(      capesslvi   ) 

-cendi  * 

congrul 


acutus,  sharpen. 
argutus  {part kip.  adj.), 

accuse,  convict, 
bibitus,  drink. 

undertake.  (Seevi., 

below.) 
-census,*  kindle. 


•  agree, 
■forge. 


This  verb  has  no  perfect  and  perfect  participle,  but  the  compounds  have 
-cudi,  -cusus. 

*  In  compounds. 


128 


INFLECTION. 


dego  (de-ago)      degi 
ex-uo,  exui 

facesso  facessi 

fido  fisus  sum, 

Cunfxdd  has  sometimes  con/idi. 


pass  one's  time. 


-f  endo  * 

fervo 

ico 

im-bu5 

in-duo 

ingruo 

lambo 

luo 


-fendi  * 

fervi 

id 

imbui 

indui 

ingrui 

Iambi 

lui 


exutus,  take  off, 
'facessituS)  execute. 
fisus,  trust, 

-fensus,*  ward  off, 

hoil.  (Cf.234.) 

ictus,  strike, 
imbutus,  wety  imbue. 
indutus,  jnit  on, 

rush  upon. 

lick. 

wash,  luiturus. 


Some  compounds  have  4utus. 


mando 
metao 
minuo 
-nuo* 

pando 


pTnso 

pluo 

pre-hendo 
(prendo) 

TOO 

scando 
sido 


-nni* 


pandi 


mandi  mansus,  chew. 

metui  metutus,  fear. 

minui  minutus,  lessen. 

-nutus,*  nod. 

(  pansus, ) 

<^  '  >  open. 

(  passus,  ) 

(  pinsitus,  ■) 
pins!  and  pinsui   -<  pinsus,     y pound. 

( pTstus,     ) 

plui  m'  pluvi  rain» 

prehendi  (prendi)    prehensus     (prensus), 

seize. 
rm  rutus   (part,  adj.),  fall, 

ruiturus. 
scandi                        scansus,  climb. 
sidi  settle. 


Compoimds  have  sedi,  sessum,  from  sedeo. 


solvo 
statoo 

stemuo 
strido 


solvT 
statu! 

sternui 
strld! 


solutus,  loose. 
statu tus,  place,  fix,  deter- 
mine. 

sneeze. 

whiz.     (Cf.  234.) 


*  In  componndeu 


LISTS   OF   VERBS   IN   THIRD   CONJUGATION.  129 


SUO 

su! 

siitus,  sew. 

tribuo 

tribui 

tributus,  assign,  ascribe. 

vello 

velli  and  vols! 

volsus,  pluck.      (See  ii., 
below.) 

verro 

verri 

versus,  brush,  sweep. 

verto 

vert! 

versus,  turn. 

v!so 

vis! 

visus,  see,  visit. 

volvo 

volvi 

voliitus,  roll. 

ii.  Perfect  stem  adds  s. 

carpo 

carps! 

carptus,  pluck. 

cedo 

cess! 

cessum,  yield. 

cingo 

cinx! 

cinctus,  gird. 

claudo 

claus! 

clausus,  shut. 

clepo 

cleps! 

cleptus,  steal. 

como  (com-emo 

)  compsi 

comptus,  comb,  deck. 

coquo 

cox! 

coctus,  cook. 

demo  (de-emo) 

demps! 

demptus,  take  away. 

dico 

dix! 

dictus,  say. 

d!-vido 

d!v!s! 

di visus,  divide. 

duco 

dux! 

ductus,  lead,  guide. 

figo 

fix! 

fixus,  fix. 

fingo 

finxi 

f ictus,  fashion,  feign. 

fleets 

flex! 

flexus,  bend. 

fl!go 

flixi 

flictus,  da^h. 

fluo 

flux! 

fluxus  (part,  adj.),  flow. 

frendo 

(  fressus, )           , 
i  .  _          Y  gnash. 
C  iresus,   > 

Compounds  have  also  fresi. 

frigo 

frixi 

(  frictus,  )  /. 

{  frixus,  V''"^- 

gero 

gess! 

gestus,  carry. 

-lacio  * 

-lex!  *  t 

-lectus,*  t  ollure. 

iungo 

iunx! 

iunctus,  join. 

•  In  compounds. 

t  The  perfects  adlicui,  llicui^  perlicui, 

and  the  participle  elicitus,  also 

occur. 

130 

INFLECTION. 

laedo 

laesT 

laesus,  hurt. 

lingo 

linxi 

linctus,  lick. 

ludo 

lusi 

lusus,  play. 

mergo 

mersi 

mersus,  dip. 

mingo 

minxl 

mictuin,  ynake  water. 

mitto 

misi 

missus,  send. 

necto 

nexi  (nexul) 

nexus,  weave. 

ningo 

ninxi 

snow. 

nubo 

nupsi 

nuptum,  vmrry. 

/  panxi  ) 

pactus,  drlue    in,  panc- 

pango 

jp^g^    r 

turus.     (See  iv.  and  v., 

(  pepigi ) 

below.) 

pecto 

pexl  (pexui) 

(  pectitus,  ) 

pingo 

pinxi 

pictus,  paint. 

plango 

planxi 

planctus,  heat,  lament. 

plaudo 

plausi 

plausus,  clap  the  hands. 

plecto 

plexT  (plexui) 

plexus,  twine. 

premo 

pressi 

pressus,  press. 

promo  (pro-emo)  prompsl 

promptus,  bring  out. 

quatio 

-cussi  * 

quassus,  shake. 

rado 

rasi 

rasus,  scrape,  shave. 

rego 

rexi 

rectus,  rule. 

repo 

repsi 

reptum,  creep. 

rodo 

rosi 

rosus,  gnaw. 

sarpo 

sarpsi 

sarptus,  prune. 

scalpo 

scalpsl 

scalptus,  scrape,  engrave. 

scribo 

scrips! 

scriptus,  urrite. 

sculpo 

sculps! 

sculptus,  carve. 

serpo 

serps! 

crawl. 

spargo 

spars! 

sparsus,  spread,  scatter. 

specio 

spex! 

-spectus,*  see,  look  at. 

stinguo 

-stlnxi  * 

-stinctus,*  quench. 

stringo 

strinx! 

strictus,  bind,  graze. 

stmo 

strux! 

structus,  build. 

*  In  compounds. 

LISTS  OF  VEEB8   IN  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


131 


sugo  suxi 

sumo  (sub-emo)  sumps! 

tego 

temno 

tergo 

tin  go  (tinguo) 

tralio 

trudo 

ungo  (unguo) 

uro 

vado 

veho 

vello 


tex! 

-temps!  * 

ters! 

tinx! 

trax! 

trus! 

unxi 

uss! 

-vas!  * 

vex! 

vols!  and  veil! 

v!xi 


suctus,  suck. 

sumptus,  take, 

tectus,  cover, 

-temptus,*  despise, 

tersus,  wipe,    (Cf.  234.) 

tinctus,  moisten,  stain. 

tractus,  draw. 

trusus,  thrust, 

unctus,  anoint, 

ustus,  burn  {transitive), 

vasura,  go, 

vectus,  draw,  carry. 

volsus,  pluck,      (See   i., 

above.) 
v!ctum,  live. 


vivo 

iii.  Perfect  lengthens  root  vowel. 

actus,  drive, 
captus,  take. 
esus,  eat. 

emptus,  take,  buy. 
factus,  do,  make. 
fossus,  dig. 
fractus,  break, 
f  ugitum,  flee. 
f  usus,  pour, 
iactus,  cast,  throw. 


ago 

capio 

edo 

emo 

facio 

fodio 

frango 

fugio 

fundo 

iacio 


eg! 

cep! 

ed! 

em! 

feci 

fodi 

freg! 

fug! 

fud! 

ieci 


lavo 


lav! 


Also  lavare,  lavdvi,  lavatus. 

lego  leg! 

linquo  liqui 

rumpo  rup! 

scabo  scab! 

vinco  vie! 


( lotus,    ) 

lectus,  gather^  read, 
-lictus,*  leave, 
ruptus,  break,  burst. 

scratch. 

victus,  conquer. 


*  In  compounda. 


--*» 


132 


INFLECTION. 


LISTS   OF   VERBS   IN   THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


133 


iv.  Keduplicated  perfects. 

cado  cecidi 

caedo  cecidi 

cano  cecini 

curro  cucurri 

disco  didici 

faUo  fefelli 

pango  pepigi 


parco 

pario 

pello 

pendo 

posco 

pungo 

sisto 

tango 

tendo 

tundo 


peperci  (parsi) 

peperi 

pepuli 

pependi 

poposci 

pupugi 

stiti 

tetigi 

tetendi 

tutudi 


V.  Perfect  stem  adds  v  (u)  to 
logy  of  the  second  conjugation. 


alo 

cello 

cerno 

colo 

com-pesco, 

con-sulo, 

cresco 

-cumbo  * 

depso 

fremo 

[furo]  t 

gemo 


alui 

-cellui  * 

crevi 

colui 

compescul 

consului 

crevi 

-cubui  * 

depsui 

fremui 

furui 

gemui 


*  In  componnds. 


casum,  fall. 
caesus,  cut. 
cantus,  sing. 
cursum,  run. 

learn,  disciturus. 

falsus,  deceive. 

pactus,  drive  in.     (See  ii., 

above,  and  vi.,  below.) 
parcitum  (parsum), 

sjmre. 
partus,  bring  forth,  pari- 

tnnis. 
pulsus,  dAve. 
pensus,  weigh. 

demand. 

pOnctus,  prick. 

status  (part,  adj.),  set. 

tactus,  touch. 

tentus  or  tensus,  stretch. 

tunsus  or  tusus,  heat. 

the  root,  after  the  ana- 

altus  or  alitus,  nourish. 
-celsus,*  push. 
cretus,  decree. 
cultus,  till. 

restrain. 

consultus,  considt. 
cretus,  grow. 
-cubitum,*  lie  down. 
depstus,  knead. 
fremitus,  roar. 

rage. 

gemitum,  groan. 
t  First  person  singular  not  found. 


I  >l 


> 


gigno 

lino 

meto 

molo 

uosco 

•oc-culo 

olo 

pango 

pasco 

pono  (po-sino) 

rapio 

scisco 

sero 

sero 

sino 

sperno 

sterno 

sterto 

strepo 

texo 

tremo 

vomo 

volo  (velle) 


genui 

levi  or  livi 

messui 

molui 

novi 

occului 

olui 

pegi 

pavi 

posui 

rapui 

scivi 

sevi 

serui 

sivi 

sprevi 

stravi 

stertui 

strepui 

texui 

tremui 

vomui 

volui 


genitus,  beget. 
litus,  smear, 
messus,  reap. 
molitus,  grind. 
notus,  learn,  find  out. 
occultus,  hide. 

smell. 

pactus,  drive  in.    (See  ii. 

and  iv.,  above.) 
pastus,  feed. 
positus,  put,  place. 
raptus,  seize. 
scitus,  decree. 
satus,  sow. 
sertus,  entwine. 
situs,  lay  down,  allow. 
spretus,  scorn. 
stratus,  strew. 

snore. 

strepitum,  sound. 
textus,  weave. 

tremble. 

vomitus,  vomit. 

wish.     (Cf.  242.) 


r 


Here  may  also  be  given  consuesco,  consuevi  {consuetus,  adj.),  accustom 
one's  self.     So  other  compounds,  and  quiesco,  quievi,  quietum,  rest. 

vi.  Perfect  stems  add  iv  to  the  root,  after  the  analogy 
of  the  fourth  conjugation. 

arcessitus,  summon. 

undertake.    (See  i., 

above.) 
cupitus,  desire. 

attack. 

lacessitus,  provoke. 
petitus,  aim  at. 
quaesitus,  ask,  seek. 


arcesso 
capesso 

cupio 

incesso 

lacesso 

peto 

quaero 


arcessivi 
capessivi 

cupivi 

incessivi  or  incessi 

lacessivi 

petivi 

quaesivi 


*^ 


134 


INFLECTION. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS,   FOURTH    CONJUGATION.        135 


rudo  rudivi 

sapio  sapivi 

Compounds  have  also  -sipui  in  perfect. 

tero  trivi 


ruditum,  brat/, 
be  ivise. 


trltus,  riib^  wear, 
vii.  No  perfect  or  perfect  participle  stems, 
ango,  choke.  glubo,  peel. 

claudo,  limp.  hiscu,  ga2)e  open. 

fatlsco,  crack  open.  plector,*  be  punished. 

fulgo,  shijie.  toUo.t  raise. 

glisco,  grow.  vergo,  incline. 

236.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  simple 
DEPONENTS  of  the  third  conjugation  :  — 


am-plector 

And  otlier  compounds. 

apiscor 
com-miniscor 

And  other  compounds. 

ex-pergiscor 

fruor 

fungor 

gradior 

irascor 

labor 

liquor 

loquor 

morior  X 

nanciscor 

nascor 

nitor 

ob-liviscor 

paciscor 

patior 

pro-ficiscor 


amplexus,  embrace. 

aptus,  get. 
coramentiis,  invent. 

experrectus,  awake. 
fructus,  enjoy,  fruiturus. 
functus,  perform, 
gressus,  walk. 
'  iratus,  be  angry. 
lapsus, /a//,  slip, 

melt. 

locutus,  speak. 
mortuus,  die,  moritums. 
naetus  or  nanctus,  get. 
natus,  be  born,  nascitunis. 
nlsus  or  nixus,  lean  upon. 
oblitus,  forget. 
pactus,  bargain, 
passus,  suffer. 
profectus,  start. 
questus,  complain. 


queror 

*  Only  post  classical  in  the  active. 

t  Perf.  and  perf.  part,  supplied  by  the  compound  forma  sOstrdi,  subldtus. 

I  For  irregular  forms  in  this  verb  see  227,  b. 


nngor 
sequor 
tuor 
Also  tueor,  tueri. 

ulciscor 

utor 

vescor 


rictus,  snarl. 
secutus,  follow. 
tuitus,  guard. 

ultus,  avenge. 
usus,  use. 
eat. 


Re-vertor,  reversus,  return,  and  other  compounds  of  verto,  are  generally 
deponent  only  in  the  forms  from  the  present  stem  and  in  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple. 

237.  Except  those  given  in  235  and  236,  the  verbs 
whose  present  stem  ends  in  sc-  have  no  perfect  and  per- 
fect participle  stems,  or  else  take  those  of  their  primi- 
tives;  as,  adhaeresco,  adhaesl,  adhaesum.  When  de- 
rived from  nouns  or  adjectives  they  form  their  perfect 
stem  (in  the  few  cases  in  which  they  have  any)  regularly ; 
those  in  -asc5  having  av-,  and  those  in  -esco  having  u-, 
after  the  analogy  of  the  first  and  second  conjugations; 
as,  vesperascit,  vesperdvit ;  durescd,  durui. 

a.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  before  sc  in  inceptive  verbs  is 
always  long,  except  in  the  few  cases  of  verbs  derived  from  con- 
sonant stems  of  the  third  conjugation.     Thus :  — 

Invet erased,  adsuesco,  cresco,  disco j  seised,  etc. 

Short  are  — 

Coalesco,  gemisco,  ingemisco,  tremesco,  contremisco,  vlvesco, 
revlvisco,  adipiscor,  indipiscor,  depeciscor,  expergiscor,  nan- 
ciscor, paciscor,  proficiscor,  reminiscor,  idciscor. 

238.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  FOURTH  conjugation,  which  form  the  perfect  or  perfect 
participle  stem,  or  both,  irregularly :  — 


amicio 

a-perio 

ad-sentior 

com-perio 


(  amicui ") 
(  amixi    J 


aperul 

adsensus  sum 
comperi 


amictus,    clothe. 

apertus,  open. 
adsensus,  assent. 
compertus,  find. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  —  DARE. 


137 


Jb 

INFLECTION. 

eo 

ivi 

itum,  go. 

ex-perlor 

expertus  sum 

expertus,  try. 

farcio 

farsi 

{;::::;,}-# 

fulcio 

fulsi 

fultus,  prop  up. 

haurio 

hausi 

haustus,  draw,  liausu 

metior 

mensus  sum 

(  mensus,    ) 

i      ,  i.-i.       r  measure. 
(  mgntitus,  ) 

operio 

operui 

opertus,  cover. 

op-perior 

oppertus  sum 

(oppertus,   } 

<           _^       -  wait  for. 

(  opperitus,  \            *' 

ordior 

orsus  sum 

orsus,  begin. 

orior  * 

ortus  sum 

ortus,  rise,  oriturus. 

queo 

quivl 

quitus,  can. 

raucio 
re-perio 

rausum,  he  hoarse, 
repertus,yi«t/. 

repperl 

saepio 

saepsi 
{  salui  ) 
<  salivi  > 
(salii    ) 

saeptus,  hedge  in. 

salio 

leap. 

sancio 

sanxi 

(  sancitus,  | 

(  sanctus,  J        ^•^'^' 

sarcio 

sarsT 

sartus,  patch. 

sarrio 

(  sarrivi  > 
(sarrul  J 

sarritus,    hoe. 

sentio 

sensi 

sensus,  feel. 

sepelio 

sepelivi 

sepultus,  bury. 

venio 

veni 

ventum,  come. 

vincio 

vinxi 

vinctus,  bind. 

IRREGUIiAR    VERBS  (Verba  anomala). 

A  few  verbs  take  no  thematic  vowel  in  tlieir 
present  stems,  but  add  the  endings  directly  to  the  root, 
and  are  therefore  called  LTs'THEMAtic  verbs,  or,  because 
these  forms  differ  from  those  of  the  regular  conjugations, 
IRREGULAR  verbs. 

*  See  227,  a. 


J 


240.  (1.)  Originally  all  verbs  with  vowel  roots  were 
unthematic,  but  all  except  dare,  to  give,  passed  over  into 
the  thematic  conjugation.* 

(2.)  Several  verbs  with  consonant  roots  remained  un- 
thematic in  most  of  the  forms  from  the  present  stem. 
They  are  esse,  be ;  velle,  wish ;  7idlle,  be  unwilling ; 
mdlle,  prefer ;  ferre,  bring ;  fieri,  become  ;  edere,  eat. 

The  unthematic  verbs  are  conjugated  as  follows :  — 

241.  dare,  to  give. 

Principal  Parts. 


PRES.  INDIC.      PRES. 

TNFIN.      PERF.  INDIC. 

PERF.  PART. 

do  t              ^re               dSdi 

datus 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

FUTURE. 

d5t 

dabam 

dabo 

das 

dabas 

dabis 

dat 

dabat 

dabit 

dannifl 

dabamus 

dabimus 

datis 

dabatis 

dabitis 

da,nt 

dabant 

dabunt 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

FUTURE    PERF, 

d6di,  etc. 

dederam,  etc. 
Subjunctive. 

dSdero,  etc. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

dem        demiis 

darem 

daremiis 

des          detifl 

dares 

daretis 

det          dent 

daret 

darent 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

dederim,  etc. 

dedissem,  etc. 

«  Such  are  fdri^  speak  ;  flare,  blow ;  nare,  swim ;  stare,  stand ;  flere, 
weep  ;  nere,  spin  ;  -plere,  fill  (used  only  in  compounds)  ;  cire,  call ;  ire,  go ; 
qmre,  be  able  ;  scire,  know.    (Cf.  also  230,  d,  \.) 

t  This  form  is,  of  course,  thematic 


i 


I 


.^-*'"'' 
.'**■ 


188 


INFLECTION. 


Imperative. 

PRESEXT.  FUTURE. 

da*  date  dato  datote 

dato  danto 

Infinitive, 
present.  perfect.  future. 

dare  dedisse  daturus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

Participles. 
Pres.  dans,  dantis  Fut.  daturus  (-a,  -um) 


Gerund. 
dandi,  etc. 


Supine. 
datum,  datu 


a.  The  passive  is  regular,  except  that  the  first  person  of  the 
present  indicative  and  subjunctive  do  not  occur. 

b.  Thus  are  conjugated  the  four-syllabled  compounds,  as 
circumdare,  venumdare,  etc.  The  three-syllabled  comj)ounds 
—  dedere,  edere,  prodere,  reddere,  traders^  vender e  —  are  reg- 
ular thematic  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation.  So  also  the  follow- 
ing verbs,  which  are  not  compounds  of  rfo,  dare,  but  of  another 
do  (corresponding  to  the  Greek  tlOtj/jll),  which  means  piit,  set  : 
abdere,  adder e,  condere,  absconder e,  credere,  indere,  ohdere,  per- 
dere,  subdere. 

c.  Early  forms  of  the  present  subjunctive  occur  as  follows : 
duas,  diiim,  du'is,  duit,  duint.  So  j)erduim,  perduis,  perduity 
perdidnt  ;  creduam,  creduas,  creduat,  creduis,  creduiiit.f 

For  esse,  see  215. 

242.    velle,  be  willing,  wish. 


pres.  indic. 
vol5 


Principal  Parts, 
pres.  infin. 
velle 


perf.  tndic. 
volui 


*  Tills  form  is,  of  course,  thematic. 

t  For  a  few  other  rare  forms,  see  any  large  grammar. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  —  VELLE.  —  NOLLE.         139 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

volo 

volumus 

vis 

volt  (vult) 

voltis  (vultis) 
volnnt 

imperfect. 

FUTURE.                              PERFECT. 

volebam,  etc. 

volam,  etc.                 volui,  etc. 

pluperfect. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

voluera.Tn,  etc. 

voluero,  etc. 

Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

velim           veHinus                vellem           vellemus 

veils            velitis 

velles            velletis 

velit             velint 

vellet            vellent 

PERFECT. 

voluerim,  etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 

voluissem,  etc. 


Participle. 
volens 


Infinitives. 
Pres.  velle 
Perf.  voluisse 

a.  ST  vTs,  if  you  please,  is  often  contracted  to  sis. 
243.  nolle  (ner-velle)^  be  unwilling. 

Principal  Parts. 

PRES.  indic.  pres.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC. 

nola  nolle  nolui 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

nolo  n5luinus 

non  vis  non  voltis  (non  vultis) 

non  volt  (non  vult)       nolunt 


I« 


140 


INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 

future.                     perect. 

n5lebarri,  etc. 

nolam, 

etc.                 nolui,  etc. 

PLUPERFKCT. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

nolueram,  etc. 

ndluero,  etc. 

Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERFECT. 

nolim          nalimus 

nollem           nollemus 

nolis            nolitis 

n5lles            nolletis 

n5lit             nolint 

ndllet             nallent 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

noluerim,  etc. 

noluissem,  etc. 

Imperative. 

PRESENT. 

FUTURE. 

noli             nolito 

nolito            nolitote 
nolito 

Infinitives. 

Participle. 

"Ptoo     n/SnA 

nolens 

Perf.  naluisse 
a.  Nevis  and  nevolt  occur  in  Plautus. 

244.  malle  (mage-velle^,  prefer. 

Principal  Parts. 


PRF«S.  INDIC. 

PRF,S.  INFIN.                     PERF.  INDIC. 

malo 

malle                       malui 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

malo 

naalumus 

mavis 

mavoltis  (mavnltis) 

mavolt  (mavnlt) 


malunt 


*\ 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  —  MALLE.  —  FERRE.  141 


IMPERFECT. 

malebam,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

malueram,  etc. 


FUTURE. 

malam,  etc. 


PERFECT. 

malui,  etc. 


FUTURE    PERFECT. 

maluero,  etc. 


Subjunctive. 


PRESENT. 

malim  malimus 

malis  malitis 

malit  malint 

PERFECT. 

maluerim,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 

mallem        mallemus 
malles  malletis 

mallet  mallent 

PLUPERFECT. 

maluissem,  etc. 


Infinitives. 

Pres.  malle 
Perf.  maluisse 

a.  Mavoto,  mdvolunt,  rrmvolet,  rruivelim,  nmveUs,  mavelit, 
mdvelleniy  occur  in  Plautus. 
245.  ferre,  bring. 

ACTIVE.  TASSIYB. 

Principal  Parts. 

Pres.  Ind.  fer5  ^^^^J 

Pres.  Inf.  ferre  ^®rri 

Perf.  Ind.  tuH*  ^^'^*  «^ 


fero 

fers 
fert 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

ferimus  feror 

fertis  ferris  (-re) 

ferunt  fertur 


ferimm* 
ferimini 
feruntur 


♦  These  forms  are  from  other  roots:  tuli,  from    Vfo/,  tollo ;  Idtus,  for 
tldtusj  from  Vf/o. 


142 


INFLECTION. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


143 


Imperfect  ferebam,  etc. 

Future  feram,  etc. 

Perfect  tuli,  etc. 

Pluperfect  tuleram,  etc, 

Fut.  Perf.  tTilero,  etc. 


Subjunctive. 


Pres.  feram,  etc. 
Imp.  ferrem,  etc. 
Perf.  tulerim,  etc. 
Plu.    tulissem,  etc. 


ferebar,  etc. 
ferar,  etc. 
latus  sum,  etc. 
latus  eram,  etc. 
latus  ero,  etc. 


ferar,  etc. 
ferrer,  etc. 
latus  sim,  etc. 
latus  essem,  etc. 


Imperative. 

PRESENT. 


far 


ferto 
ferto 


ferte 


ferre 


ferimini 


FUTURE. 

fertote  fertor 

fenmto  fertor         feruntor 


Infinitives. 

Pres.  ferre 

Perf.  tulisse 

Fut.    laturus  (-a,  --urn)  esse 

Participles. 

Pres.       ferens 

Perf. 

Future,  laturus,  -a,  -um 

Gerund. 
ferendi,  etc. 

Supine. 

latum 
latu 


ferri 

latus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

latum  iri 


latus  (-€^  -ima) 

Gerundive. 
ferendus  (-a,-um) 


a.  Reduplicated  forms  from  the  perfect  stem,  as  tetvll,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  comic  writers. 

246.  fieri,  become.     (It  is  also  used  as  the  passive  of 
facib^  do,  make.) 

Principal  Parts. 


pres.  in  Die. 

PRES.  INFIN. 

PERF.  INDIC. 

fio 

fieri 
Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

factus  sum 

fi5 

fimus 

fis 

fitis 

fit 

fiunt 

IMPERFECT. 

FLTTURE. 

PERFECT. 

fiebam,  etc. 

Ham,  etc. 

factus  simi,  etc. 

PLUPER1?'ECT. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

f actus  eram,  etc 

m 

factus  era,  etc. 

Subjunctive. 

PRF-SENT.      IMPERtECT. 

PERFECT. 

PLUPERFECT. 

fia,m,  etc.     fierem,  etc. 

f actus  sim, 

etc.     factus  essem,  etc. 

Imperative. 

Present  fi 

fite 

Infij 

^ITIVF.S 

1* 

Participle. 

Pres.  fieri 

Perf.  factus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

Fut.    factum  iri 

Gerundive. 
faciendus  (-a,  -um) 


factus  (-a,  -ima) 

Supine. 
factii 


I 


144 


INFLECTION. 


a.  Compounds  ol  facto  which  retain  the  full  form  have /To  in 
the  passive ;  as,  calefacio,  caleflo  ;  beriefacidy  benefw.  Conjit, 
defitj  and  tnfit  also  occur,  but  compounds  with  prepositions 
regularly  form  their  own  passives ;  as,  conficid,  conficior  ;  per- 
field,  perfiA^lor. 

247.  edere,  eat. 


edo 


Principal  Parts. 
esse  or  edere  edi 


esum 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 


edo 

es  or  edis  * 

est  or  edit 


edimus 
editis  or  estis 
edunt 


IMPERFECT.        FUTURE.      PERFECT.    PLUPERFECT.      FUT.  PERF. 

edebam,  etc.  edam,  etc.  edi,  etc.  ederam,  etc.   edero,  etc. 


Subjunctive. 


PRESENT. 

edam       or  edim 
edas         ''    edis 
edat         ^'    edit 
edamus  '•    edimus 
edatis      "    editis 
edant      '•    edint 

PERFECT. 

ederim,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 

ederem       or  essem 
ederes         **    esses 
ederet  **    esset 

ederemus   '*    essemus 
ederetis       "   essetis 
ederent       *'    essent 

PLUPERFECT. 

edissem,  etc. 


Imperative. 

PRESENT.  future. 

es        or  ede 


edite   '*  este 


edito     or  esto 
edito      "    esto 
edit5te  '*    estote 
edunto 

*  The  short  forms  occur  in  the  same  places  in  which  the  forms  of  sum 
begin  with  es. 


I> 


IRREGULAB   VERBS. 


145 


Infinitives. 

Pres.  esse  or  edere 

Perf.  edisse 

Fut.    esunis  {-a,  -um)  esse 


Participle. 


esurus  (-a,  -iim) 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 
Pres.  Ind.    editor         or  estur 
Imp.  Subj.    ederetur     "   essetur 
a.  Ambedo  has  participles  ambedens  and  ambesus. 
Comedo  has  comesus,  coniesurus,  and  rare  coTtiestus ;  also, 
comedim,  comediSj  comedit. 

Ad  edo  and  exedo  have  adesxts  and  exesus. 

248.  ire,  go  (Vi),  also  presents  some  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  unthematic  verbs. 


PRES.  ind. 
eo 


eo 
Is 
it 


Principal  Parts. 

PRES.  infix.  perf.  IND. 

ire  ivi  (ii) 

Indicative. 

present. 

imus 

itis 

eunt 


PERF.  part. 
itum 


IMPERF.  FUT.  PERF.  PLUPERF.  FUT.  PERF. 

Xbam,etc.    rbo,  etc.    ivl(n),  etc.     lYeram,  etc.    iverb,  etc. 


Subjunctive. 


present. 
earn,  eas,  etc. 


IMPERF. 

irem,  etc. 


PERF. 

iverim,  etc. 


PLUPERF. 

ivissem,  etc. 


PRESENT. 

i        ite 


Imperative. 

FUTURE. 

its        itote 
its        eiinto 


'^i- 


146 


INFLECTION. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


147 


Participles. 
iens  (euntis,  etc.) 


Infinitives. 
Pres.  ire 
Perf.  ivisse 
Fut.    ittirus  (-a,  -um)  esse     iturus  (-a,  -una) 

Gerund. 
eundi,  etc. 

a.  In  compounds,  future  forms  in  eafUj  ies^  let,  etc.,  occasion- 
ally occur;  and  the  tenses  from  the  perfect  stem  more  com- 
liionly  omit  the  V ;  as,  abi'i,  redleram,  etc. 

b.  Istisy  issem,  and  isse,  occur  for  Ivistisy  'tvlssem,  ivisse. 
(Cf.  228,  a.) 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS   (Verba  defectlva). 

249.  The  following  verbs  are  used  in  only  a  few  forms, 
and  are  therefore  called  defective  verbs  :  — 

(1.)  odi,  hate,  though  a  perfect  form,  has  a  present 
meaning.     It  occurs  in  the  following  forms  :  — 

Indicative. 

odi  or  osus  sum,  I  hate,  etc. 
oderam,  I  hated,  etc. 
5der6,  I  shall  hate,  etc. 


Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut.  Perf. 


Subjunctive. 
Perf.     oderim,  etc.  Phip.     odissem,  etc. 

Infinitives.  Participles. 

Perf.     odisse  osus  (-a,  -um)  (active  sense) 

Fut.      5surus  (-a,  -um)  esse     5surus  (-a,  -um) 

a.   Odivit  occurs  (M.  Anton,  in  Cic,  FhlL,  xiii.,  §42). 

(2.)  memini,  remember,  is  also  a  perfect  form  with  a 
present  meaning,  and  has  — 

Indicative. 
Perf.  memini,  I  remember,  etc. 

Plup.  memineram,  I  remembered,  etc. 

Fut.  Perf.    meminer5,  I  shall  remember,  etc. 


Subjunctive. 
Perf.  meminerim,  etc.  Plup.  meminissem,  etc. 

Imperative. 
Fut.    memento  mementote 

Infinitive. 
meminisse 

(3.)  coepi,  have  begun,  has  — 

Indicative. 
Perf.  coepi,  etc.  Plup.  coeperam,  etc.  Fut.  Perf.  coepero,  etc. 

Subjunctive. 
Perf.  coeperim,  etc.  Plup.  coepissem,  etc. 

Infinitives.  Participles. 

Perf.  coepisse  coeptus  (-a,  -um) 

Fut.    coepturus  (-a,  -lun)  esse     coepturus  (-a,  -ima) 

a.  With  a  passive  infinitive  the  deponent  forms  are  used: 
coeptus  esty  erat,  etc. 

(4.)  aio,  say,  has  — 


Indicative. 

present. 

imperfect. 

aid 

aiebam         aiebamus 

ais 

aiebas          aiebatis 

ait    aiunt 

aiebat          aiebant 

Subjunctive. 

present. 

aias 

aiat               Slant 

Imperative. 

Participle. 

ai 

aiens 

a.  The  comic  writers  have  the  imperfect  forms  aibds,  aibat, 
aibaiity  and  treat  them  as  dissyllables. 


> 


148 


INFLECTION. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


149 


(5.)  inquam,  say,  has  — 

Indicative. 

Pres.  inquam  -quis       -quit    -quimus  -quitis  -quiunt 
Imp.  inquiebat  inquiebant 

inquibat 
Fut.  inquies  inquiet 

Perf.  inquisti  inquit 

Subjunctive. 
Pres.    inquias        inquiat        inquiatis        inquiant 

Lmperatrt:. 
inque 
inquit5 

(6.)  fari,  to  speak,  has  — 

Indicative. 
Pres.  fatur 

Fut.    fabor  fabitur 

Perf.  fatus  est 

Plup.  fatus  eram 

Imperative. 
fare 
Infinitive.  Participles. 

fan  (farier)  fans 

fatus  (-a,  -um) 

Gerund.  Gerundivb. 

Gen.  fandi  fandus,  etc^ 

Abl.  fando 

Supine. 
fatu 

(7.)  queo,  can,  has  — 

Indicative. 

Pres.  queo  quis    quit      quimus  quitis    queunt 

Imp.   quibam  quibat  quibant 

Fut.    quibo  quibunt 

Perf.  quivi  quivit  quiverunt 


Subjunctive. 
Pres.  queam,  etc. 

Imp.   quirem  quiret  quirent 

Perf.  quiverit 

Plup.  quissent 

Infinitives.  Participle. 

Pres.  quire  quiens  (queuntis,  etc.) 

Perf.  quivisse  (quisse) 

(8.)  nequeo,  cannot,  has  — 

Indicative. 

Pres.  nequeo   nonquis    nequit  -quimus  -quitis  -queunt 
Imp.  nequibeim  -quibat  nequibant 

Fut.  nequibunt 

Perf.  nequivi  -quivisti  -quivit  nequiverunt 

Subjunctive. 

Pres.  nequeam,  etc. 
Imp.  nequirem,  etc. 
Plup.  nequisset 

Infinitives.  Participle. 

Pres.  nequire  nequiens  (nequeuntis,  etc.) 

Perf.  nequivisse 

a.  Passive  forms  of  these  two  verbs  are  occasionally  found 
with  a  passive  infinitive,  as  with  coepi  (see  above).  So  quttur, 
queittur,  queantur,  qvltus,  etc.,  nequltur  and  nequitum  est^  etc. 

Note.     It  will  be  seen  that  qtieo  and  nequeo  are  conjugated  just  like  eo. 

(9.)  quaeso,  beg,  has  — 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso  quaesit  quaesumus 

Inf.  Pres.    quaesere 

(10.)  Isolated  forms  are  — 

a.  Imperative  have,  havete,  be  well,  blessed,  etc. 
havetd 
Infinitive     havere 


I 


r 


150 


h,   Ind.  Pres. 
"     Fut. 
Imper. 


INFLECTION. 

salveo,  I  am  well. 

salvebis 

salve,  salvete,  be  well,  hail ! 

salveto 

salvere 


Infin. 

c.  Imper.         cedo,  cette,  say,  let  us  have,  etc. 

d,  Ind.  Pres. 


"     Fut. 
Subj.  Pres. 
Imper. 
Infin. 


e.    Ind.  Pres. 
Subj.  Pres. 
"     Imp. 
Participle 
Gerund 


confit,      defit,  defiant,       infit,  infiimt, 

accomplish.  fail.  begin. 

c5nfiet     defiet 
confiat    defiat 
confieret 
confieri    defien 


interfiat  (Lucr.) 


effieri.  interfieri 
(Plautus) 


ovat,  have  an  ovation.* 

ovet 

ovaret 

ovans     ovatus     ovaturus 

ovandi 


IMPERSONAL   VERBS. 

250.  Impersonal  verbs  are  such  as  are  used  only  in 
the  third  person  singular  and  without  a  personal  subject. 
The  most  common  are  the  following :  — 

a.  Ten  verbs  denoting  mental  or  moral  states  :  — 
decet^  it  is  proper,  becoming.      oportet,  ought. 
llbety  it  is  pleasant. 
licet,  I,  you,  he,  etc.,  may. 
liquet,  it  is  clear. 
miseret,  pity. 


piget,  be  disgusted. 
paenitet,  repent. 
pudet,  he  ashamed. 
taedet,  be  weary  of. 


*  An  ovation  among^  the  Romans  was  a  sort  of  lesser  "triumph,"  in 
"which  the  general  rode  on  horseback  instead  of  in  a  chariot,  as  in  the 
regular  * '  triumph. ' ' 


PARTICLES. 


151 


h.  Verbs  denoting  the  state  of 

fulfjet,       \ 
fidgurat,  >  it  lightens. 
frdminat,  ) 
gelat,  it  freezes. 
grandinat,  it  hails. 
lucescity    )  ..  T  1  . 

ulucescd,  ) 

c.  Also  the  following :  — 

accldit.  it  happens. 

constat y  it  is  accepted,  be- 
lieved. 

cont'ingity  it  happens  favor- 
ably. 

convenit,  it  is  agreed  upon. 

displicetj  it  displeases. 


the  weather :  — 

lapidat,  it  rains  stones. 
ningit,  it  snows. 
pluit,  it  rains. 
tonat,  it  thunders. 
vesperuscU,      Keening     ap- 
advesperdscit,  V         „^,i,e3. 
invesperascd,  ) 

interest^  it  concerns. 
iuvaty  it  delights. 
praestat,  it  is  better. 
placet,  it  pleases. 
refert,  it  concerns. 
restat,  it  remains. 


PARTICLES. 

Note.  Adverbs,  so  far  as  they  are  capable  of  inflection,  have  been 
treated  under  the  Comparison  of  Adjectives  (174-176).  Their  further 
treatment,  as  well  as  that  of  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections, 
belongs  i)artly  under  Syntax,  but  mostly  under  Word-Formation,  and  will 

be  found  there. 

For  adverbs  (derivation),  see  292,  293  ;  —  (syntax),  see  557. 
For  prepositions  (in  composition),   see  301  ff. 
For  "  (syntax),  see  428  ff.,  and  558  ff. 

For  conjunctions,  see  562  ff. 
For  interjections,  see  583. 

WORD-FORMATION  (Derivatio  verborum), 

251.  (1.)  Words  are  either  simple  (simplicia)  or  com- 
pound (composita). 

(2.)  Simple  words  are  such  as  contain  only  one  com- 
plete stem;  as,  Zm(7w-s,  game  ;  rc^-o, rule;  7idturdli-s,  nat- 
ural. 

(3.)  Compound  words  are  such  as  contain  two  or  more 
complete  stems  ;  as,  mdgnanimus  (mdgno-  +  ctnimo-^^ 
high-souled  ;  intellego  {inter  +  %o)»  understand. 


152 


WORD-FORMATION. 


252.  (1.)  Simple  words  are  divided  into  primitives 
(^primifivd)  and  derivatives  (derivata), 

(2.)  Primitive  words  are  such  as  are  formed  directly 
from  roots ;  as,  rex^  king,  Vreg ;  cavus,  hollow,  Vcav  ; 
dlco^  say,  Wdlc, 

(3.)  Derivative  words  are  such  as  are  formed  from 

noun,   adjective,    or  verb  stems;  as,  culpare^   to   blame, 

from    culpa    (stem   culpa-)  ;  fellcitas,   happiness,   from 

fellx  (stem  felic-') ;  memorabilis,  remarkable,  from  me- 

mordre  (stem  memord-). 

a.  Words  derived  from  iioun  or  adjective  stems  are  called 
DENOMINATIVES  (dendmindtlva)  ;  those  from  verb  stems  are 
called  VERBALS  {verbdlia). 

Strong  and  Weak  Forms  of  Roots. 

253.  Many  roots  appear  in  two  forms,  a  strong  form 
and  a  weak  form.     Thus  :  — 

Weak  Form.  Strong  Form. 

teg-ere,  to  cover.  tog-a,  a  toga. 

fug-ere,  to  flee.  fug-7,  I  have  fled, 

a.  There  are  a  few  instances  of  triple  root  forms.  Thus : 
fid-es,  faithfulness, /^<^-^^5,  faithful, /yec?-w5,  treaty.  Cf.  do-num, 
gift,  with  dd-s  and  da-tus. 

Simple  Words. 

Note.  The  origin  of  various  Latin  words  is  very  obscure.  They  can- 
not be  referred  to  any  known  roots.  It  is,  of  course,  only  the  well  estab- 
lished, common  formations  that  can  profitably  be  treated  here. 

Words  without  SuJOSxes. 

254.  A  few  nouns  and  adjectives  are  formed  without 
any  suffix,*  the  root  itself  serving  as  a  stem.     Thus:  — 

cor,  n.,  heart ;  ^cord  pes,  m.,  foot ;  ^/ped 

lux,  f.,  light;  \/luc  trux  (adj.),  savage;  ^/timc 

a.  The  un thematic  verhs  (see  239  ff.)  also  have  no  suffixes. 

b.  A  very  few  roots  are  reduplicated ;  as,  mar-inor,  n.,  mar- 
hie  ;  tur-tur,  m.,  turtle-dove. 

*  For  the  definition  of  "  suffix,"  see  56. 


I 


WORDS   WITH   SUFFIXES. 


153 


Words  with  Suflaxes. 
255.  The  common  suffixes   as  they  appear  in  Latin 
words  are  as  follows  :  — 
(1.)   Forming  vowel  stems. 


0-,  a-, 

io-,  ia-, 

ro-,  ra-  (lo-,  la-,  ri-^li-) 

• 

1- 

mo-,  ma- 

to-,  ta-  (so-,  sir) 

u- 

no-,  na- 

ti-  (si-) 

bo,  ba- 

ni- 

tu-  (su-) 

CO-,  ca- 

nu- 

tro-,  tra-,  tri-  (cf.  tr-,  below). 

de-,  da- 

VO-,  va-  (UO-,  ua-) 

(2.)  Forming  consonant  stems. 

Suffix. 

Nom.  Sing. 

Suffix.                       Nom.  Sing. 

'  is- 

es 

ent-                 ens 

■< 

er- 

ur;  er  (is) 

f  min-               men 

or-         us, 

UT;  or  (6s) 

1  man-               mo 

.  6r- 

5s,  or 

i  tr-                   ter  (cf.  tr-, 
-<  tor-                  tor       above). 
( sor-                  sor 

^in- 

en;  6 

(  on- 

5 

a.  Suffixes  are  culled  primary  when  applied  directly  to 
roots  to  form  the  stems  of  primitive  words,  secondary  or 
DERIVATIVE  when  applied  to  simple  stems  to  make  the  stems  of 
derivative  words. 

Note.     To  help  the  pupil  in  nnderstanding:  the  growth  of  words,  his  at- 
tention should  be  called  to  groups  like  the  following  :  — 


ruh-us^  m.,  a  bramble  bush. 

fra6i-cu«.*] 

Ruhic-o,  the  Rubicon  (Red  River). 

rubicun-dus,  ruddy. 

rubicundu-lus,  somewhat  ruddy. 


^rub 

rub-€-r,  red,  ruddy. 
Rubr-ius,  a  man's  name. 
rubri-ca,  f.,  red  earth. 
rubric-are,  to  color  red. 
Rubrlcd-tus,  a  river  in  Spain. 

v/OB 


OS  {oris),  n.,  mouth. 

or-are,  to  plead. 

ord-tor,  m.,  pleader,  orator. 

ordtor-ius,  belonging  to  an  orator. 

*  The  form  rubtcus  does  not  itself  occur,  but  is  presupposed  by  Rubied  in 
conjunction  with  words  like  bellicus  and  modicus,  from  bellum  and  modus. 


154 


WORD-FORMATION. 


Nouns  and  Adjectives. 
256.  As  examples  of   primitive  nouns  and  adjectives 
formed  from  roots  with   the   foregoing   suffixes   may  be 
given  the  following  :  — 


(1.)   V4)WEL  stems  :  — 

scrlb-a,  m.,  a  scribe 
liid^iis,  m.,  play 
cav-iLS,  -a,  'Uniy  hollow 
ac-us,*  f.,  needle 
mor-bus,  m.,  disease 
jmU'ci,  -ae,  -a,  few 
gen-ius^  m.,  guardian  spirit 
fa-ma,  f.,  report 
pug-nus,  niv  fist 
mdg-nus,  -a,  -um,  great 
lil-nay  f.,  moon 
pd-nis,  m.,  bread 
rub-e-r,  -ra,  -rum,  red 
sel-la,  f.,  seat 
alrtus,  -a,  -um,  high 
vec-tis,  m.,  lever 
fruc-tus,  m.,  fruit 
casus,  m.,  fall 
cor-vos,  m.,  raven 
ar-vom,  n.,  ploughed  field 
eq-uiiSy  m.,  horse 

(2.)  CoxsoxANT  stems  :  — 

nubes,^  genitive  nub-is,  f.,  cloud. 

*  The   primitive    adjectives  formed  -with  the  suffix  U-  all  afterwards 
received  an  i  and  passed  over  into  the  third  declension.     Thus ;  — 

ten-u-is,  thin  •yten 

ping-u-is,  fat  taping 

8ud-v-is  (for  snad-u-is),  sweet  ^/sudd 

le-v-is  (iorleg-u-is),  light  y/^^g 
t  Cf.  109. 


Wscrib  -\-  a- 

^lud  4-  0- 

^cav  -f-  0-  and  dr 

^ac  -\-  w- 

^mor  -\-  bo- 

Wpau  -\-  CO-  and  cdr 

^gen  -f-  io- 

*^fd  -\-  md- 

^ pug  -\-  no- 

^ mag  -|-  no-  and  nou- 

Wluc  -)-  nd- 

^ pd  -j-  ni- 

Wrub  -\-  ro-  and  rdr 

^sed  -\-  Id- 

Wal  -j-  to-  and  td- 

Wvec  -\-  tir 

^frug  -\-  tu- 

Wcad  -\-  su^ 

Wcor  -\-  vo- 

War  -\-  vo- 

Veq^ 


uo- 


nouns  in  -lus,-la,-lum. 

later,     genitive  lat-er-is,  m.,  brick. 


156 


genus, 

nemu^, 

fulgovy 

cardo, 

virgo, 

ndm£n, 

sermo, 

pater, 

dator, 


ti 

a 
ii 
II 
u 
n 
ii 
ii 
ii 


gen-er-is,  n.,  birth. 
nem-or-is,  n.,  grove. 
fulg-dr-is,  m.,  flash,  gleam. 
card-in-h,  m.,  hinge. 
virg-in-is,  i.,  maiden. 
no-min-is,  n.,  name. 
ser-mon-is,  m.,  speech. 
pa-tr-is,  m.,  father. 
da-tor-is,  m.,  giver. 


Nouxs  (and  Adjectives)  in  -lus,  -la,  -lum. 

257.  The  suffixes  lo-,  la-,  form  a  series  of  nouns  and  a 
few  adjectives  from  primitive  o-  stems,  the  o  regularly 
becoming  u  before  the  1  of  the  suffix.     Thus  :  — 

dnu-lus,  m.,  ring.  iacu4um,  n.,  javelin. 

ocu-lus,  m.,  eye.  cingu-lum,  n.,  girdle. 

rabu4a,  m.,  pettifogger.      iugu-lum,  n.,  collar-bone. 
tegu-la,  f.,  tile.  garru-lus,  -a,  -aim,  talkative. 

Note.  Some  of  these  words  seem  to  have  heen  formed  from  primitives 
once  actually  in  use,  hut  early  supplanted  by  their  derivatives,  others  to 
have  been  built  upon  the  same  pattern  from  roots  or  stems  from  which  no 
corresponding  primitive  was  ever  used.  This  second  process  came  about 
as  follows :  There  are  a  few  words,  like  speculum,  n.,  mirror,  and  Jigulus, 
m.,  potter,  which  seem  to  have  been  made  from  u-  stems  rather  than  O- 
stems.  Having  words  like  these  and  others  like  dnulus  (from  the  stem 
ano-  -|-  the  suffix  lo-),  the  Romans  confounded  the  ending  of  the  stem 
with  the  suffix  and  transferred  -ulus,  as  a  new  ending,  to  other  kinds  of 
stems  (or  roots  serving  as  stems).  So  in  English,  having  inherited  from 
Latin  words  like  "  portable,"  in  which  the  "  a"  belongs  to  the  stem,  we 
transfer  this  "a"  with  the  ending  and  form  "bearable"  from  "bear." 
This  process  is  called  formation  by  analogy.  It  is  often  impossible  to 
tell  whether  a  given  Latin  word  was  formed  from  a  real  primitive  which 
afterwards  became  obsolete,  or  whether  it  simply  grew  by  analogy. 

258.  (1.)  The  same  suffixes  lo-,  la-  (ro,  ra-),  added 
to  a  series  of  stems  (mostly  obsolete)  in  bo-  and  co-,  be- 
came fused  with  these  syllables  into  the  endings  -bulum, 
-culum,  -brum,  -crum. 


156 


WORD-FORMATION. 


(2.)  The  endings  -bulum,  -culum,  -brum,  -crura,  to 
which  for  convenience  may  be  added  -trum,  form  neuter 
nouns  denoting  means  or  instrument.     Thus  :  — 

sta-buluvi,  stall  cf.  stare^  to  stand     Wsta, 

turl^ulum^  censer  "   tus  (tilrls),  frankincense. 

voca-bidum,  word  "   vocare,  to  call,  name. 

jjo-eulunij  cup  "  potdre,  to  drink. 

vehi-culum,  vehicle  "   veherCf  to  draw. 

perlrculum,  trial,  danger  "   ex-perirl^  to  try. 

cri'brum,  sieve  "   ceruere,  to  sift,  distinguish. 

de-lu-brum,  shrine  "   luere,  to  wash,  atone  for. 

candelabrum,  candlestick  "  candere,  shine,  candela,  can- 
dle. 

sepul-cnim,  tomb  "   sepel'ire,  to  bury. 

simuld-crum,  image  "   simuldre,    make    like,    pre- 

tend. 

rds-tnim,  rake  s/rdd  -\-  tro-  (primary). 

ard-trinriy  plough  stem   of   ardre  -\-  tro-  (second- 

ary). 

fere-trum^  bier  cf.  ferre,  to  carry. 

Diminutives. 

259.  The  same  suffixes  lo-,  la-,  came  often  to  have  a 
diminutive  force,*  forming  a  large  number  of  nouns 
usually  of  the  same  gender  as  their  primitives.  They  also 
form  a  few  diminutive  adjectives.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  From  stems  in  a-  or  o-,  the  stem  vowel  appearing 
as  u  generally,  but  as  o  after  e,  i,  and  v.     Thus  :  — 

ntdu-lus,  a  little  nest,  from  ntdits. 


cenu-la 

*'      cena,  dinner. 

oppidu-lum 
alveo-lus 

"     oppidum,  town. 
"     alveiis,  a  hollow. 

f'dio-lus 

"     filius,  son. 

*  Compare   the   English 
*' sonny.'* 

"bookish" 

and    "blnisV     "sunny" 

and 


'i' 


I 


DIMINUTIVES. 


157 


cldvo-lus  *  from  cldvoSy  a  nail. 

parvo4iiSf  -a,  -?«m  ''     parvos,  small. 

(2.)  From  dental  and  palatal  stems,  with  a  u  added 
by  analogy.     Thus  :  — 

aetat-Urla         from  aetds,  a  period  of  life. 
reg-Urlus  "      rex,  king. 


voc-u-la 


ii 


vox,  voice. 


capit'U-liun        **      caput,  head. 
(3.)  If  a  liquid  precedes  the  stem  vowel  of  the  primi- 
tive (a  or  o)  that  vowel  is  dropped  and  the  liquid  assimi- 
lated, sometimes  with  slight  further  change.     Thus  :  — 

agellus  (for  ager-u-liis)    from  ager,  field. 

patella  "     patera,  saucer. 

capella  *'     capra,  goat. 

puella  "     puera,  girL 

(but  puer-ti-lus)  "     puer,  boy. 

a^elliis  "     asinus,  ass. 

pulvillits  "     pulvimiSj  cushion. 

corolla  "     corona,  ^vreath. 

columella  "     columna,  pillar. 

sigilla  (n.  pi.)  "     signum,  sign. 

hacillum  "     haculum,  staff. 

tabella  «<     tabula,  tablet. 

ocellus  "     oculus,  eye. 

And  by  analogy 

lap'dlus  "     lapis,  stone. 

codicilliis  "     codex,    a    writing    (origi- 

nally, bark). 
(4.)  In  the  case  of  diminutives  from  other  consonant 
stems  and  from  §-,  u-,  and  i-  stems,  the  endings  have  the 
forms,  -cuius,  -cula,  -culum. f     Thus  :  — 
sermun-culus     from  sermo,  speech. 

*  The  O  was  afterwards  weakened  to  u,  of  course,  as  in  the  primitives. 
Hence,  cldvulus,  parvulus,  etc. 

t  In  some  cases  because  an  intervening  stem  in  CO-  has  disappeared,  in 
others  throug-h  growth  by  analogy. 


158 


WORD-FORMATION. 


rumus-cidus  from  rumor,  report. 

arhus-cula  **     arbor,  tree. 

bu-cula  "      bos,  cow. 

fios-cuhis  "    fids,  flower. 

Ttiater-cula  "      mater,  mother. 

cor-culum  "     cor,  heart. 

die-cida  "     c?i^5,  day. 

cani-cula  "     caw  is,  dog. 

arti'culus  "     ar^«5,  limb. 

corni'culum  "     cor/iw,  horn, 

a.  Ranun-culus,  from  mw«,  frog;  furun-cidiis,  from  /wr, 
thief;  and  convent i-cidum,  from  conventus,  meeting,  are  also 
found. 

^.  A  few  diminutives  are  further  formations,  as  : 

amdeus  ixom  acus,  needle  [ami  -|- 

lo  -(-  2*0-]. 

homitncio  (beside  homunmdics)        "    /iowJ,  man   [Ao??ion 

-f-  CO  -}-  io  +  o/i-]. 
c.  There  are  also  a  few  double  formations ;  as  :  — 

aselhdus  asellns  asinus. 

Adjectives  in  -lis  and  -ris. 

260.  The  same  suffixes  (lo-,  la-,  ro-,  ron)  with  the  vowel 
weakened  and  thus  appearing  as  li-  *,  ri-,  form  a  series  of 
adjectives  denoting  various  ways  of  "belonging  to.'* 
Thus :  — 

humi-lis,  low  from  humns,\  ground. 

agi-lis,  nimble  ''     an  obsolete  agiis.X 

nobidis,  famous  as  if  from  nobus. 

ntidis,  useful  "   "     "     vtus, 

ndturadis,  natural         from  natnra. 

*  There  was  a  marked  tendency  of  Latin  adjectives  to  pass  into  i-  stem 
forms  and  follow  the  third  declension.  Cf.  the  double  forms  in  155,  7, 
and  the  forms  in  256,  1 ,  footnote. 

t  For  the  weakening  of  the  stem  vowel  O  of  the  primitive  to  i  in  the 
derivative,  see  59. 

X  The  existence  of  a  form  agus  is  shown  by  the  compound  prod-igus 
beside  co-dgu-lum. 


M 


« 


ADJECTIVES   IN  -LIS,  -RIS;  -NUS,  -NA,  -NUM.      159 

luna-ris,  of  the  moon  from  luna, 

fidedis,  faithful  "     fi^es. 

trlbudis,*  of  the  same  tribe  "      tribus, 

host'idis,  hostile  "     hostis. 

261.  Words  like  agilis^  nohllis^  utilis,  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  verbals.  Then  the  endings  -bills  and  -tills  were 
added  to  verb-stems  to  make  adjectives  denoting  ten- 
dency (more  often  passive  than  active).     Thus  :  — 

ama-bdls,  lovable.  terridjUls,  terrible. 

fiedjills,  lamentable,  tearful.       versd-tUis,  movable. 

a.  Plaiis'Mlis,  worthy  of  applause,  and  some  others,  seem  to 
be  from  noun-stems. 

262.  Through  the  transference  of  the  stem  vowel  to  the 
suffix   arose    the   endings   -aris,   -alls,   -elis,  -ills,  -iilis. 

Thus :  — 

milit-dris,  military  from  m'des. 
poptd-dris,  of  the  people  *'    popidus. 

ndv-dlis,  naval  "     nuvis. 

capit-dlis,  deadly,  capital  "     capid, 

crud-elis,  cruel  "     crudics. 


<( 


vir. 


u 


vir-llis,  manly 

ped-Tdis,  of  the  feet  "    pes. 

a.  Such  adjectives  were  often  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  aed-ilis, 
m.,  an  aedile ;  ovile,  n.,  a  sheep-fold  ;  and,  dropping  the  final 
vowel,  pugd,  m.,  boxer  ;  animal,  n.,  Hving  thing. 

AdJECTFVES   in   'NUS,   'NA,   -NUM, 

263.  The  suffixes  no-,  na-,  form  another  series  of  ad- 
jectives denoting  "  belonging  to."     Thus  :  — 

mdg-7ius,^  great  from  Vmag  +  no-  (primary). 

pater-mis,  of  a  father         "     pater, 
fagi^nis,  beechen  "     /«r7^^' 

*  The  long  quantity  of  the  penultimate  u,  i,  or  o,  in  such  derivatives  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

t  This  suf&x  was  originally  participial. 


160 


WORD-FORMATION. 


Ronia-nuSy  Roman 
colll-nus,  hilly 
tiiar'i-nus,  of  the  sea 


from  Roma, 
**      collis. 


(( 


mare. 


cf. 

,  hodie. 

ii 

dies. 

n 

herl. 

u 

eras. 

(( 

aevom. 

li 

diu. 

u 

mat  Ufa, 

264.  The  suffixes  no-,  na-,  form  many  adjectives  of 
TIME.      Thus  :  — 

hodier-nusy  to-day's 

diur-nuSy  of  the  day 

hester-nus,  yesterday's 

crastl-nusy  to-morrow's 

a^ter-nus,  everlasting 

diuti-nus,    )  -  .        - 

,._^  y  lonff-contmued 

dintur-iuiSy )        ® 

mdtuti-nuSy  of  the  morning 

vespert'i-nuSy  of  the  evening  "   vesper, 

265.  Through  the  transference  of  stem  vowels  to  the 
suffix  -arose  the  ondings  -anus,  -enus,  -inus.     Thus :  — 

mont-anuSy  mountainous 
CrraccJiHinuSy  of  Gracchus. 
ser-enus,  calm. 
terr-euuSy  earthy 
diu-lnus,  god-like 
vic-imiSy  neighboring 

a.  With  these  adjectives  compare  nouns  like  Tnembr-dnay 
har-enay  reg-ina,  plstr-lnurriy  patr-onuSy  ann-dnay  fort-una. 

b.  The  distributive  numerals  are  also  formed  in  -ntis ;  as, 
blnl,  seiiij  etc.     (See  157,  158.) 

Adjectives  in  -cus,  -ca^  -cum. 

266.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes  CO-,  ca-,  which  added  to  different  kinds  of  stems 
give  the  endings  -acus,  -icus,  ucus,  -icus,  -aticus.  Thus ;  — 

pau-cuSy  few  \pav. 

belLl-cuSy  warlike  from  helium, 

civircusy  of  a  citizen  "     civ  is. 


from 

nioiis. 

(( 

terra. 

(( 

divos. 

(( 

vicus. 

ADJECTIVES   IN  -CUS,  -CAy  -CUM;  -lUS,  -1.4,  -lUM.      161 


from  Gallus, 


cf. 


pudor, 
cadere, 
from  pater, 

*'     vendtics. 

cf.  fluviics. 


« 


GalU'CUSy  Gallic 
op-acuSy  shady. 
pud-icuSy  modest 
cad'UCUSy  ready  to  fall 
patr4cusy  of  a  father 
vendtt-cus,  belonging  to  hunting 
fluvi-dticuSy  living  in  water 

a.  Through  the  Greek  come  words  like  — 

SocratlcuSy  of  Socrates. 
lliacuSy  of  IHum,  Trojan. 
CorinthlacuSy  of  Corinth. 

267.  A  suffix  c-  with  the  vowel  dropped  was  added  to 
a-  stems,  and  the  ending  -ax  was  then  transferred  to  other 
stems,  the  adjective  thus  formed  denoting  a  (generally 
faulty)  tendency.     Thus:  — 

pugiird-x  (pugnd-€-is)y  inclined  to  fight. 
aud-d-Xy  bold. 
terirdrXy  tenacious. 


Adjectives  in  -luSy  -ia,  -ium, 

268.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes  io-,  ia-,  which,  added  to  different  kinds  of  stems, 
give  the  endings  -eus,  -cius,  -ceus,  -icius,  -aceus,  -icius. 
Such  adjectives  often  denote  material.     Thus ;  — 

reg-ivs,  royal  from  rex. 

"     uxor,  wife. 


UQcor-iuSy  uxorious 

Ephes-iusy  of  Ephesus. 

aur-eus  (for  aure-ius)y  golden 

trlti-ceuSy  wheaten 

aedili-ciiLSy  of  an  aedile 

patr-icius,  patrician 

herba^eiis,  grassy 

hanmdin-dcetcs,  like  a  reed    cf.  harundd. 

m^retric-iicSy  meretricious        from  meretrtx, 

tribuTirlciuSy  tribunicial  cf.  tribUnus, 


a 


u 


a 


u 


it 


auriim, 

trlticum. 

aedllis, 

pater  (through  patricus), 

herba. 


162 


WORD-FORMATION. 


ABSTRACT  NOUNS. 


163 


from  orator, 
"    praetor, 
"     censor. 


orator-ius^  of  an  orator 
praetor-ius,  praetorian 
censor-ius,  of  a  censor 

a.  From  various  Greek  proper  names  are  formed  adjectives 
in  -eus  and  -aeus.     Thus  :  — 

Epicureus,  Epicurean. 
Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna. 

269.  The  ending  -arius  *  forms  adjectives  often  becom- 
ing- nouns  and  denoting  trade  or  profession  (masculine), 
or  PLACE  (neuter).     (Cf.  276,  4.)     Thus :  — 

slc-driusj  m.,  assassin  from  stca,  dagger. 

advers-drius,  -a,  -um,  opposed  **     adversus, 

legion-arliLs,  belonging  to  the  legion        "     legio, 

argent-arms^  m.,  banker 

ordln-drius,  -a,  -wm,  customary 

tumultururiiis^  -a,  -um^  hurried 

aer-uriu7ti,  n.,  treasury 


(4 

H 
it 

u 
ii 


argentum, 
ordd. 
tumultus, 
aes. 


Nouns  of  Agexcy. 

270.  Nouns  of  agency  are  formed  from  roots  or  verb 
stems  with  the  suffixes  tor-,  sor-,  masc,  trio,  fern. 
Thus  :  — 

da-tor,  giver  from  V  6/a  -\-  tor-  (primary)  ;  cf.  dare, 

ord-tor,  pleader,  orator         *'     stem  ord-  -j-  tor-  (secondary)  ;  cf. 

ordre. 
sud-sor,  adviser  "     Wsudd-  -\-  sor-  (primary)  ;     cf. 

sudd  ere, 
vic-trlx,  conqueress  "     stem  vie-  -\-  trie-  ;  cf.  vincere, 

vend-trJx,  huntress  "     stem  vend-  -(-  trie-  ;  cf.  vendri. 

So  vid-tor,  summoner,  through  an  obsolete  vidre ;  sen-d-tor, 
senator,  through  an  obsolete  sendre, 

a.  The  suffix  appears  in  the  form  tr-  in  the  following  :  — 

frd-ter,  m.,  brother  (/.  e.,  supporter.     Qi.  fero). 
md-ter,  f.,  mother.  porter,  m.,  father. 

*  This  endings  seems  to  consist  of  ro-  -{-  io-,  added  at  first  to  stems 
in  a-  and  then  transferred  with  the  a  to  other  stems.     (Cf .  first  example.) 


271.  The  person  or  (personified)  thing  which  has  to  do 
with  something  is  indicated  by  the  following  suffixes :  — 

(1.)  on-.     Thus  :  — 
praec-d    (for  prae-voc-d),  m.,  herald,  Vvoc  -f-  on   (primary). 
centurird,  m.,  centurion,  from  centuria,  company  of  one  hundred. 

(2.)  ti-,  dropping  the  vowel  and  forming  the  nominative 

in  -es.     Thus  :  — 

eqiies  (equi-tls),  m.,  horseman. 
dies  (dlirtis),  c,  bird. 
a.  Some  of  these  nouns  were  originally  adjectives.     So  ales, 

(orig.)  winged. 

Abstract  Nouns. 

272.  Abstract  nouns  have  the  following  endings  :  — 

-ia  (-tia),  -iiun  (-tium),  -ies  (-ties) 

-ta,  -tas.  -tus  ;  -go,  -d5  (-tud5) 

-la,  -15  (-tio,  -sio)  ;  -tus,  -ura  (-tura,  -sura) 

Note.  Abstract  nouns  denotinj^  quality  are  formed  from  noun  and  ad- 
jective stems ;  abstract  nouns  expressing  action,  from  verb  stems.  They 
tend,  however,  to  become  more  or  less  concrete,  and  the  abstract  meaning 
is  not  always  easy  to  trace.  The  English  "  relation  "  used  for  "  relative  " 
is  an  example  of  this  tendency  of  abstracts  to  become  concrete. 

273.  Abstract  nouns  denoting  quality  are  formed 
with  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

(1.)  ia-,  fem. ;  io-,  neuter.     Thus  :  — 

auddc-ia,  boldness  from  auddx, 
custod-iaj  guard  "     custos. 

menddc-ium,  lie  "     inenddx, 

mllit-ia,  military  service         "     miles, 
hospit-mm,  hospitality  "     hospes. 

a.  Through  forms  like  militia  and  hospitium,  the  endings 
-tia  and  -tium  were  transferred  to  other  kinds  of  stems. 
Thus :  — 

amici-tia,  friendship  from  amicus. 

duri-tia,  sternness  "     durus,  hard. 

servi-tiumy  slavery  "     servos. 


fi 


164 


WORD-FORMATION. 


ABSTRACT   NOUNS. 


165 


b.  Collateral  forms  in  -ies  and  -ties  in  the  fifth  declension 
appear  beside  the  forms  in  -ia  and  -tia  of  the  first.     Thus  :  — 

mdteries  beside  materia,  material. 
durltles        ''       dUrltiay  hardness. 

(2.)  ta-,  tat-,*  tut-.*     Thus  :  — 

iuven-ta^  f.,  youth 

senec-ta,  f.,  old  age 

civi-tas,  f.,  citizenship,  state 

boni'tds,  f.,  goodness 

pie-tas,  i.,  filial  affection,  loyalty 

TndieS'tds,  f.,  majesty 

ho7ies-tas^  f.,  respectability 

vir-tils,  f.,  manliness,  bravery,  virtue 

senec-tus,  f.,  old  age 

servirtus,  f.,  slavery 

a.  The  stem  vowel  is  dropped  in  Itber-tas,  freedom,  from 
liber. 

(3.)  gin-  and  din-.f  The  latter  is  especially  common 
as  an  addition  to  stems  in  tu-,  giving  the  ending  -tudo. 
Thus :  — 


from 

I  iuuenis. 

se?iex. 

civis. 

bonus. 

pius. 

mdtor  (- 

ins),  greater. 

hojior,  office,  honor. 

9    *' 

vlr. 

senex. 

u 

servos. 

ima-gd,  f.,  image. 
orl-go,  f.,  origin 
aerff-go,  f.,  coj)per-rust. 
vir-ago,  f.,  virago 
torpe-do,  f.,  sluggishness 
cup~i-dd,  f.,  desire 
dulce-do^  f.,  sweetness 
mdgni-tudo,  f.,  size 
forti-tudo,  f.,  endurance 
habl-tudd,X  f-*  custom. 
vale-tudo,  f.,  health. 


cf .  orlrl. 

from  vir  (by  analogy), 
cf.  torpere. 

**  cupere. 

"  dulcls. 
from  7ndgnus. 

"     fortis. 


*  These  two  suffixes  consist  of  ti-  (with  vowel  dropped)  added  to  real 
or  supposed  steins  in  ta-  and  tu-. 

t  /.€-.,  go-  -f  in-,  and  do-  -j-  in-. 

X  Habitus  (gen.  -us)  is  more  common,  and  suggests  the  type  on  which  the 
words  in  -tiido  were  built. 


274.  Abstracts  denoting  the  name  of  an  action  are 
formed  with  the  following  suffixes :  — 

(1.)  la-  (added  to  verb  stems  in  e-,  and  the  ending  -ela 
then  transferred  to  other  stems).    Thus :  — 


cf.  candere, 
**  tueri. 
"  cliens. 
"  querl. 
"  loqui. 

Thus :  — 

cf.  legere. 

"   Inserere,  insitus. 
*^   quaerere. 
"   vianere,  mdnsum. 
"  cogitdre^  cogitdtus. 
'   largiri,  largltum. 


cande-la,  f .,  candle 
tute-la,  f.,  protection 
client-^la,  f.,  clientship 
qicer-ella,  f.,  complaint 
loqu-ellaj  f.,  speech 

(2.)  ion-  (tion-,  sion-).* 
leg-ioy  f.,  gathering,  legion 
Insit'io,  f.,  grafting 
q7iaest-id,  f.,  investigation 
mdns-io,  f.,  a  remaining 
coglidt-io,  f.,  reflection 
largit-ioj  f.,  bestowal  of  a  largess 

(3.)  tu-.     Thus:  — 
rrid-tus,  m.,  motion  (contracted  for  rrwvitus) 
comitd'tiis,  m.,  retinue 
equitdrttis,  m.,  cavalry 
mom-tus,  m.,  warning 
anheti-tns,  m.,  panting 
(4.)  ra.  (added  to  stems  in  u-,  and  thus  producing  the 
endings  -ura,  -tura,  -sura).     Thus :  — 

fig-Ttra,  f.,  shape 

plc-tvra,  f.,  painting 

usura,  f.,  use,  enjoyment  of  a  thing 

cen-sura^'^  censorship. 

pracrtura^  praetorship. 

Nouns  wrrn  Various  Endings. 
276.  Act,  means,  or  result  is  denoted  by  the  suffixes 

*  These  two  suffixes  seem  to  he  made  hy  adding  ion-  to  the  stems  of 
perfect  participles. 

t  Often  thus  coming  to  denote  an  office. 


cf.  movere. 
*'    comitdri. 
"    equitdre. 
"   rnonere. 
"   anheldre. 


cf .  fingere. 
"  pingere. 
"   utu 


166 


WORD-FORMATION. 


PATRONYMICS. 


167 


min-  (oftener  increased  to  mentd-)  and  monio-,*  neuter, 
and  monia-,*  feminine.     Thus :  — 


teg-men, 

tegu^men,  ^  covering 
tegi-meriy 
certa-meUy  strife,  contest 
frag-mentum,  fragment 
drna-mentum,  ornament 
argu-mentum,  argument 
momt-mentinn,  memorial 
condJ-ynentum,  seasoning 
testi-Tnonium,  testimony. 


cf.  tegere. 

"  certare, 

"  f ranger e. 

"  orndre, 

"  argiiere. 

"  monere. 

"  condlre. 


qtieri-mojiia,  complaint. 

276.  Nouns  denoting  place  are  formed  with  the  fol- 
lowing suffixes :  to-  (eto-),  ina-  (trina-,  trino-),  Hi-, 
ario-,  t5rio-  (sorio-). 

(1.)  to-,  eto-  denote  the  place  where  something  grows 
IN  ABUNDANCE.      Thus  :  — 

arhus-tum,  orchard  from  arbor, 

querc-etiim,  oak-grove  cf.  qiiercus, 

vin-ettim,  vineyard  **   vinum, 

(2.)  ina-,  trina-,  trino-  denote  the  place  where  some- 
thing IS  DONE.     Thus  :  — 

cul'tna,  kitchen.  tdns'trina,  barber-shop. 

sal-inae,  salt  mine*  jm-trinum,  treadmill. 

a.  Nouns  in  -ina  also  often  denote  a  science,  and  many  have 
other  meanings  ;  as,  discipl-lna^  teaching  ;  viedic-ina,  medicine  ; 
reg-Jnu,  queen  ;  ru-ina,  downfall,  etc. 

(3.)  Hi-  denotes  especially  the  place  where  animals 

*  The  origin  and  development  of  these  suffixes,  as  of  several  to  be  men- 
tioned later  (Sta-,  ina-,  trina-,  ivo-,  oso-,  olento-,  bundo-,  cundo-, 
etc.),  are  partly  too  little  known,  partly  too  complicated,  for  explanation  in 
a  school  grammar.  It  seems  best,  therefore,  simply  to  chronicle  them  as 
they  appear. 


( 


are  kept.    These  nouns  are  the  neuters  of  adjectives.    (See 
260-262.)     Thus  :  — 

oV'ile,  sheepfold  from  ovis. 

cub-lie,  chamber. 

(4.)  ario-  forms  nouns  which  are  really  the  neuter  of 
adjectives  in  -arius.     (See  269.)     Thus :  — 
columb-arium,  dove-cote.       tepid-drlam,  room  for  a  warm  bath. 

(5.)  t5rio-  (sorio-)  forms  nouns  which  are  really  the 
neuter  of  adjectives  in  -torius  (-sorius).  (See  268.) 
Thus :  — 

j>rae-tdrhim,  general's  tent.  dever-sdrium,  inn. 

Patroxymics. 

277.  Patronymics  (^patrdnymica),  that  is,  nouns  de- 
noting descent,  from  the  name  of  the  father  or  other  an- 
cestor, are  formed  with  the  following  (Greek)  endings : 
-ides  (fem.  -is),  -ides  (fem.  -eis),  -iades  (fem.  -ias),  and 
-ades. 

a.  The  masculine  patronymics  (i.  e.,  those  in  -des)  are  of  the 
first  declension;  the  ferainines  (i.  e.,  those  in  -as  or  -is)  are  of 
the  third. 

h.  There  are  also  a  few  feminines  of  the  first  declension  in 
-ine  or  -ione.     Thus  :  — 

Nerlney      daughter  of  Nereus. 
Acriswne,  "        "  Acrislus, 

278.  (1.)  -ides  (f.  -is)  is  used  with  names  ending  in 
-us  (except  -ius),  -or,  and  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant ; 
also  with  those  in  -on  which  have  the  stem  vowel  short. 
Thus  :  — 

from  Priamus. 
Tantaliis, 
Danaus. 
Agenor. 
Cecrops. 
Agamemnon,  stem  Agamem7i6n. 


Prnumides 

Tanialis 

Danais 

Agenorides 

Cecropides 

Agamemnonides 


<( 


(( 


a 


n 


a 


168 


WORD-FORMATION. 


(2.)  -ides  (f.  -eis)  is  used  with  uames  ending  in  -eus 
or  -cles.     Thus  :  — 

Atrldes  from  Atretis. 

Heradldes  "     Heracles, 

Nereis  "     Kerens. 

(3.)  -iades  (f.  .ias)  is  used  with  names  in  -ius,  with 
many  in  -es  or  -o,  after  the  dropping  of  these  endings, 
and  with  names  in  -on  if  the  stem  vowel  is  long.    Thus :  — 

Thest  iades  ) 


Thestias      ) 
AnehTs  iades 
Sclp  iades 
Telarmniades 
So  also  Atlantiades 


from  Thest  ills, 

"     Anchises, 
**     Scipid. 

''     Telarmn,  stem  Telanion-. 
"     Atlas, 


(4.)  -ades    is   used  with  most    names    in  -as  or    -es 
Thus : — 

Aeneades  from  Aeneas.* 

Hippotades  **     Hippotes. 

Gentile  Adjectives. 
279.  Gentile   adjectives  igentilicia^  that  is,  words 
denoting  the  pla<je  or  country  to  which  some  one  belongs, 
are  formed  with  the  following  suffixes  :  co-,  ca- ;  io-,  ia- ; 
no-,  na- ;  ti- ;  ensi-.     Thus  :  — 


Galli-ciis,  Gallic,  a  Gaul. 
Ephes-dus,  Ephesian. 
Roma-nus,  Roman. 
Tusmd-anm,  Tusculan. 
NeapoUt-dnus,  of  Naples. 
Praenest-inus,  of  Praeneste. 
Lat'imis,  Latin. 
Amer-lnus,  of  Ameria. 


Fidenas  (-atis),  of  Fidenae. 
Arp'inds  (-dtis),  of  Arpinum. 
Samnis  (-It is),  of  Samnium. 
Cann-emis,  of  Cannae. 
Utic-e7isis,  of  Utica. 
Atheni-ensis,  of  Athens. 
Sulnwrirensisj  of  Sulmo. 
Vei-em,  of  Veil. 


I 


\  I 


PARTICIPIAL    ADJECTIVES. 


169 


Note.  No  distinct  rule  can  be  given  as  to  what  sort  of  stems  these 
different  endings  are  used  with.  But  stems  in  a-  usually  have  -anus, 
those  in  ia-  or  io-,  inus,  others  in  o-,  -icus  ;  -ius  is  used  mostly  with 
Greek  words,  and  consonant  stems  generally  have  -ensis.  Other  forms 
also  are  used  ;  as,  Afer,  African  ;  Siculus,  Sicilian.  Cf .  also  the  adjec- 
tives like  timyrnaeus  derived  through  the  Greek  (268,  a). 

Participial  Ai)jective.s. 
280.    Adjectives  with    the   participial  meaning   "pro- 
vided with  "  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  to-,  ta-,  which 
added    to    different    kinds    of    stems    give    the    endings 
-atus,  -itus,  -utus.     Thus  :  — 


robics-tus,  stronjT 

hones-tuSy  honorable 

tofja-tus 

turrl'tiis 

cor  nu -tits 

aur-dtics 

cord -at  lis 

mell-ltus 

au-ttus 

nds-iftus 


u 
n 
ii 


*  The  change  of  vowel  from  6  in  the  primitive  to  e  in  the  patronymic 
IS  due  to  a  secondary  form,  Aenifds. 


from  rohiir. 

Jwnor, 

togay  a  toga. 

turris,  tower. 

coma,  horn. 

aurmn,  gold,  through  aurare. 

cor,  heart,  as  if  through  cordare, 

mel,  honey. 

avos  {-us),  grandfather. 

nasus,  nose. 

Note.     Aegrdtus,  sick,  suggests  with  patronus,  annona,  etc.,  a  lost  series 
of  verb  stems  in  6-. 

281.  Adjectives  with  about  the  meaning  of  present  par- 
ticiples are  formed  with  the  suffixes  bundo-  and  cundo-. 
Thus : — 

fa-cundus,  eloquent.  mlrd-bundus,  wondering. 

{Ft-cundiis,  pleasant.  vere-eimdus,  modest. 

ird-cundus,  wrathful.  mori-bundiis,  dying. 

282.  The  suffixes  mo-,  ma-,  no-,  na-,  alone  and  com- 
bined together,  form  several  adjectives  and  nouns  which 
were  originally  participles.     Thus  :  — 

al-mus,  -a,  -aim,  kindly  cf.  alere,  to  raise,  nourish. 

fd-ma,  f.,  report  "   fdri,  to  speak. 

mdg-nus,  -a,  -21m,  great. 


J 


J  70 


WORD-FORMATION. 


som-nus,  m.,  sleep  (for  sop-jius  ;  cf.  sop'ire), 

fe-mina,  f.,  woman. 

ter-minus,  ra.,  boundary. 

aho-mnus,  -a,  -um,  cherished ;  hence,  as  a  noun,  foster-child. 

a.  The  same  combined  suffix  iS  found  in  the  second  person 
plural  of  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  —  regi^mhii,  nwne-mini, 
amaba-rnirii,  —  and  in  the  old  imperative  forms  like  horta-mino 
(See  227,  f.) 

Adjectives  with  Various  Endings. 

283.  Various  adjectives  are  formed  with  the  suffixes 
do-,  da^,  UO-,  ua-,  iv5-,  iva-. 


turbl-dus,  disordered 

vwi-diis,  lively. 

frifjl-dus,  cold 

avi-ilus.  greedy. 

herbi-dus,  grassy 

lepl-dus,  charming 

ann-iius,  yearly 

vac-uus,   ) 

>  empty. 
vac-ivusj )  '' 

ndt-ivus^  native 

aest'ivus,  of  summer 

capt-wiis,  captive 


Thus :  — 
from  turba, 

cf .  frigxis, 

from  herba, 
cf.  lepor, 
from  anmis. 


cf.  riahis, 
"  aestds, 
"  captus. 


284.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes  bri-,  cri-,  tri-,  the  last  often  denoting  place. 
Thus : — 


cele-her^  famous. 
iTigu-bTns^  mournful. 
salu-bris,  healthful. 
miille-bris,  womanish. 
volu-cer,  winged. 


medio-crisy  mediocre. 
eqiies-tris,  equestrian  (for 

equet-tris), 
campes-tris,  level. 
terreS'tris,  earthy. 


Cf.  also  creber,  -bra,  -brinn,  frequent. 

285.  Adjectives  denoting  fullness  are  formed  with 
the  suffixes  oso-,  olent-,  olento-.     Thus  : 


ADJECTIVES.  —  VERBS. 


171 


glorirdsus 
pericid-osics 
gener-osus 
aestKrdsics 
ojy-ulens  * 
virolens 

fraud-ulentus  * 
v'ln-olentus 


ik 


u 


il 


u 


a 


u 


u 


from  gloria^  glory* 

pericidum,  danger. 
gentcs,  birth. 
aestus,  heat,  tide. 
[o/?s],  wealth. 
vis,  force. 
fraus,  treachery. 
vinum,  wine. 

286.  Adjectives  denoting  various  relations  of  numbee 
are  formed  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  MuLTiPLiCATiVES  denote  how  many  fold,  and  end  in 
-plex.     Thus :  — 

sivipleXy  single.  qnlnciipleXt  fivefold. 

duplex,  double,  twofold.  centuplex,  a  hundredfold. 

(2.)  Proportionals  denote  how  many  times  one  thing  is 
greater  than  another,  and  end  in  -plus.     Thus  :  — 

duplusy  twice  as  great.       octuplus,  eight  times  as  great. 
(3.)  Temporals   denote  how  many  years  old,  and  end  in 
-imus.     Thus  :  — 

b'lmnSy  two  years  old.  qicadrlmus,  four  years  old. 

Note.  Adjectives  in  -arius,  from  the  distributives,  denote  the  number 
of  parts  of  which  a  thing  consists,  but  they  belong  chiefly  to  post-classical 
usage.     Thus  :   quaterndrius,  of  four  parts. 

Verbs. 

287.  -are,  -ere,  -6re,  -ire,  were  treated  by  the  Romans 
as  derivative  endings  to  form  many  verbs  from  noun  and 
adjective  stems.  The  stem-vowel  of  the  noun  or  adjective, 
unless  u,  disappears.     Thus  :  — 

culpdre,^  to  blame  from  culpa,  fault. 

dotiare,  to  give  *'     donum,  gift. 

♦  O  of  the  suffix  weakened  to  U. 

t  The  verbs  in  -are  must  have  started  from  noun  stems  in  a-,  and  those 
in  -ire  from  stems  in  i-,  and  these  endings  must  then  have  been  transferred 
to  other  steins  by  analogy. 


172 


WORD-FORMATION. 


laudare,  to  praise  from  laus,  praise. 

aestuare,  to  seethe,  boil       ''     aestm,  heat. 
alh?re,  to  be  white 


FREQUENTATIVES,    INTENSIVES,    AND   INCEPTIVES.      173 


lucere^  to  shine 
metiiere,  to  fear 
statuere,  to  fix 
purilre,  to  punish 
serinre,  to  be  a  slave 
f'ln'ire,  to  end 
cUstodlre,  to  guard 


a 
a 
u 
u 

u 


albus,  white. 
luXy  liglit. 
metus,  fear. 
status,  position. 
poe7ia,  punishment. 
servos  (-ys),  slave. 
finis,  end. 
castas,  guard. 


Note.  The  verbs  with  consonant  stems  (third  conjugation),  and  many 
of  the  sliort  verbs  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conjuj^ations,  were  in- 
herited by  the  Romans  from  the  parent  lang-uag^e,  and  these  verbs  fur- 
nished the  pattern  for  the  verbs  treated  in  287.  Such  inherited  verbs  are 
regere,  amdre,  monere,  audire.  Their  development  is  too  complicated  to  be 
explained  in  a  school  g^rammar.  Many  of  the  simple  nouns  and  adjectives 
treated  above  were  of  course  also  inherited  already  formed  from  the  parent 
lang-uag-e,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing:  the  corresponding  words  in  Greek 
and  Sanskrit.  Their  growth,  however,  is  much  simpler  and  easier  to  trace 
than  that  of  the  inherited  verbs. 

a.  The  denominatives  of  the  first  conjugation  are  generally 
transitive  ;  those  of  the  second  are  almost  invariably  intransitive. 
Cf.  the  examples.  Those  in  the  third  conjugation  are  all  from 
u-  stems. 

b.  Pairs  of  verbs  are  sometimes  found,  one  usually  from  the 
weak  form  of  a  root  and  intransitive,  the  other  from  the  strong 
form  and  transitive  (causative  verbs,  verba  causatica).    Thus  : 

placere,  to  please        pldcdre,  to  appease. 
sedere,  to  sit  seddre,  to  settle. 

Frequentative  axd  Intensive  Verbs. 

288.  (1.)  Frequentatives  (frequentdtiva),  that  is, 
verbs  denoting  a  repetition  of  the  action  of  their  primitives, 
and  INTENSIVES  {intensiva),  or  verbs  denoting  a  forcible 
action,  are  formed  from  perfect  participles  by  substituting 
the  characteristic  a  for  the  stem  voweL     Thus  :  — 


'511. 


adiutdre 
diet  are 
qiiassdre 
habit  are 
dorm'itdre 


from  adiuvdre  (adiutus). 
'*     dicere  (dictus). 
quatere  (q^mssus). 
habere  (habitus), 
dormire  (dorniitum). 

(2.)  From  forms  like  hahitdre,  the  apparent  ending 
-itare  spread  to  various  present  stems,  and  also  took  the 
place  of  the  regular  formation  from  verbs  of  the  first  con- 
jugation.    Thus: — 

aq itare      from  aqere.  minitdrl  from  mindri. 

noscitdre      "     iioscere.        rogitdre      "     rogdre* 
cldmitdre     "     cUimdre. 

a.    Videre,  see,  makes  vlsere  through  v'lsus. 

(3.)  Double  formations  occur.     Thus:  — 

currere  cursdre  cursitdre. 

dicere  dietdre  dictitdre. 

venire  (ad)-centdre  ventitdre. 

(4.)  Another  kind  of  intensives  is  formed  with  the 
ending  -esso,  rarely  -iss5,  in  the  third  conjugation,  with 
the  perfect  and  perfect  i)articiple  stems  generally  made 
after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth,  if  used  at  all.     Thus  :  — 

lacesso     lacessere     Lacesslol  lacessltus. 

incesso     inressere    incess'iul  or  incessi         

jyetisso    petissere     

a.  Frequentatives  are  also  called  iteratives  (ite rdtJv a) ^  &nd 
the  intensives  in  -ess5  (-isso)  are  also  called  meditatives 
(iueditdtJva). 

Inceptive  Verrs. 
289.  Inceptives  or  inchoatives  (^inceptiva  or  incoh- 
dtlva),  that  is,  verbs  which  denote  the  beginning  of  an 
action,  are  formed  by  adding  -sco  to  a  verb  stem,  or  by 
analogy,  to  noun  stems.  They  are  intransitive,  of  the 
third  conjugation.     (Cf.  235,  236,  237.)     Thus  :  — 


172 


WORD-FORMATION. 


lauddre,  to  praise 
aestudre,  to  seethe,  boil 
albere,  to  be  white 
luce  re,  to  shine 
metuere,  to  fear 
statuere,  to  fix 
pun  ire.  to  punish 
servTre,  to  be  a  slave 
flnire,  to  end 
custudlre,  to  guard 


from  laus,  praise. 
*^'     aestus,  heat. 
albuSj  white. 
ZiZo:,  light. 
ynetus,  fear. 
status,  position. 
poena^  punishment 
servos  (-us),  slave. 
finis,  end. 
custos,  guard. 


n 

a 

a 

u 

a 

u 

a 


Note.  The  verbs  with  consonant  stems  (third  coniugation),  and  many 
of  the  short  verbs  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conjugations,  were  in- 
herited by  the  Romans  from  the  parent  lang-uage,  and  these  verbs  fur- 
nished the  pattern  for  the  verbs  treated  in  287.  Such  inherited  verbs  are 
regere,  amdre,  monere,  aud'tre.  Their  development  is  too  complicated  to  be 
explained  in  a  school  granmiar.  Many  of  the  simple  nouns  and  adjectives 
treated  above  were  of  course  also  inherited  already  formed  from  the  parent 
languag-e,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing  the  corresponding  words  in  Greek 
and  Sanskrit.  Their  growth,  however,  is  much  simpler  and  easier  to  trace 
than  that  of  the  inherited  verbs. 

a.  The  denominatives  of  the  first  conjugation  are  generally 
transitive  ;  those  of  the  second  are  almost  invariably  intransitive. 
Cf.  the  examples.  Those  in  the  third  conjugation  are  all  from 
u-  stems. 

6.  Pairs  of  verbs  are  sometimes  found,  one  usually  from  the 
weak  form  of  a  root  and  intransitive,  the  other  from  the  strong 
form  and  transitive  (causative  verbs,  verba  causdtlva).    Thus  : 

jplacere,  to  please        pl^dre,  to  appease. 
sedere,  to  sit  seddre,  to  settle. 

Frequentative  and  Intensive  Verbs. 

288.  (1.)  Frequent  ATI  VES  (frequentdttva),  that  is, 
verbs  denoting  a  repetition  of  the  action  of  their  primitives, 
and  INTENSIVES  (intensiva),  or  verbs  denoting  a  forcible 
action,  are  formed  from  perfect  participles  by  substituting 
the  characteristic  a  for  the  stem  voweL     Thus  :  — 


FREQUENTATIVES,    INTENSIVES,    AND   INCEPTIVES.      173 


:i  t 


-1 


?4 


4 


adlutdre 

dictdre 

quassdre 

Jiabltdre 

dorrtiltdre 


a 


u 


a 


u 


from  adluvdre  (adiiltus). 
dicer e  (clictus). 
qiiatere  (quassiis), 
habere  (habitus), 
dormire  {dorniltum), 

(2.)  From  forms  like  Jiahitdrc,  the  apparent  ending 
-itare  spread  to  various  present  stems,  and  also  took  the 
place  of  the  regular  formation  from  verbs  of  the  first  con- 
jugation.    Thus: — 

aq itare      from  agere.  viinltdri  from  mindri, 

noscltdre      "     iwscere.        rogltdre      "     rogdre, 
cldmitdre     *'     cldmdre. 

a.    Videre,  see,  makes  vlsere  through  vlsus, 

(3.)  Double  formations  occur.     Thus :  — 

currere  cursdre  cursitdre, 

dlcere  dictdre  dirtitdre, 

venire  (ad)'veutdre  ventitdre, 

(4.)  Another  kind  of  intensives  is  formed  with  the 
ending  -esso,  rarely  -isso,  in  the  third  conjugation,  with 
the  perfect  and  perfect  participle  stems  generally  made 
after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth,  if  used  at  all.     Thus  :  — 

lacesso     lacessere     lacesslvi  lacessitits. 

incessd     iiicessere    incesslvi  or  incessi        

jietisso    j^etissere     

a.  Frequentatives  are  also  called  iteratives  {iterdtiva) ,  VLnd. 
the  intensives  in  -esso  (-isso)  are  also  called  meditatives 
(meditdtlva). 

Inceptive  Verbs. 
289.  Inceptives  or  inchoatives  (^inceptwa  or  incoh- 
dtiva),  that  is,  verbs  which  denote  the  beginning  of  an 
action,  are  formed  by  adding  -sco  to  a  verb  stem,  or  by 
analogy,  to  noun  stems.  They  are  intransitive,  of  the 
third  conjugation.     (Cf.  235,  236,  237.)     Thus :  — 


174 


WORD-FORMATION. 


lahascere       from  lahare. 
calescere  "     calere. 

tremescere        "     tremere. 


mgemiscere 


it 


ingemere. 


obdormlscere  from  obdormlre. 
puerascere  *'    piier. 

iuvenescere 
durescere 


u 


invents, 
"     durus. 


Desiderative  axd  Diminutive  Verbs. 

290.  Desideratives  (desidcrdtivd)  express  a  desire 
to  do  something.     They  end  in  -turid  (-surio).     Thus :  — 

empturid        empturire  

parturio        parturire        parturtvl  (-ii)         parturttum, 

esurio  esurlre  esuritum 

Note.     Others  are  rare  and  chiefly  confined  to  the  comic  poets. 

291.  Diminutive  verbs  (dcmlnutlva)  are  formed 
from  diminutive  noun-forms  in  -illus  by  substituting  a 
for  the  stem  vowel.     Thus :  cantlUdrc^  cdnscrlbilldre. 

Note.     The  diuiiuutive  verbs  are  very  few  in  number. 

Derivation  of  Adverbs. 

292.  Besides  the  adverbs  in  -e  and  -ter  formed  and 
compared  from  adjectives,  given  under  174  ft'.,  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  noticed  :  — 

(1.)  Numeral  adverbs  are  formed  from  numbers  above 
four  by  the  ending  -ies.     (Cf.  167  and  158.)      Thus :  — 
qulnquies^  five  times.  dec  Ies,  ten  times. 

(2.)  Certain  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  with  the 
endins:   -atim   as  if   accusatives    of    the   third-declension 
nouns  made  from  the  perfect  participle  stems  of  verbs  of 
the  first  conjugation.     Thus  :  — 
gradatim,  by  degrees,  slowly,  as  if  through  grddari,  gradatus  ; 

cf.  gradl^  to  walk. 
gregatlm,  in  crowds.     Compare  con-gregare,  to  gather  into  a 

flock. 

(3.)  A  few  adverbs  denoting  origin  or  manner  end  in 
-itus.     Thus :  — 


adverbs.  —  COMPOUND  WORDS. 


175 


dlvlnitus,  from  the  gods. 
fundltus,  from  the  bottom,  utterly. 
radlcltus,  root  and  branch. 
293.  All  other  adverbs  were  originally  oblique  cases  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  or  pronouns,  and  are  — 
(1.)  Also  used  as  oblique  cases.     Thus  :  — 

multo.  much.  continuo,  immediately. 

tantum,  so  much  and  no  more,  only. 
For  others,  see  187. 

(2.)  Recognizable  as   case   forms,   though   no  longer 
used  as  such.     Thus  :  — 

partim.  partly.  secus.  otherwise. 

(3.)  More  or  less  disguised.     Thus  :  — 
hlnc,  hence.  ^^^^^  thither. 

cul-ed*  to  such  a  degree,     com^inus*  at  close  quarters. 
quasi y*  as  it  were. 

Compound  Words. 

294.  Almost  all  Latin  compounds  consist  of  two  parts 
only,  the  second  part  forming  what  may  be  called  the 
basis  of  the  meaning,  and  the  first  part  indicating  some 
modification  therein. 

Thus,  in  decemviri,  the  basis  of  meaning  is  virl,^  men,  and 
this  is  limited  by  decern  to  a  body  of  ten  men  ;  m  funambidus, 
the  basis  of  meaning  is  "  a  walker,"  and  this  is  limited  in  the 
compound  to  a  rope-walker ;  in  vorsipellis.  the  basis  of  meanmg, 
"skin,"  is  limited  by  the  notion  of  turning  or  chani^ing,  so  that 
the  compound  means  "changeable"  (cf.  English  "turn-coat")  ; 
in  persuZideo.  the  basis  of  meaning,  "  advise,"  is  modified  so 
as  to  mean  "  advise  through  to  the  end  "  (i.  e.,  carry  one's  pomt 
by  advice,  persuade). 

♦  Words  like  these  are  of  course  compounds,  each  part  being  origi- 
nally a  case  form.  They  are  included  here  for  the  convenience  of  the 
learner. 


176 


WORD-FORMATION. 


Nouns  and  Adjectives. 
295.  (1.)  The  first  part  of  a  compound  noun  or  ad- 
jective may  be  a  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  stem,  or 
a  numeral,  a  preposition,  or  one  of  a  small  number  of  par- 
ticles called  prefixes. 

(2.)  The  second  part  of  a  compound  noun  or  adjective 
may  be  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  a  participle,  but  it  is  far 
more  commonly  a  noun  or  adjective  form  which  does  not 
occur  as  a  simple  word.    Thus:  — 

magnanimus,  great-souled  magno-  -}-  animus. 

vorslpellls,  changeable  vorsa-  -\-  pellis. 

siiaviloquens,  sweet-speaking       suaol-  -f-  loquens. 

funamhulus,  rope-walker  JTini-  -\-  [amhulus], 

sacrilegus,  sacrilegious  sacro-  -\-  \legus']. 

decemviri^  decemvirs  decern  -\-  oiri. 

interrexj  interrex  *  inter  -\-  rex, 

innatus,  inborn  in  (prep.)  +  natus. 

imberhis,  beardless  in-  (neg.  prefix)  and  harha. 

nefas<,  wrong  ne  -\-fas. 

S2ibl7fstris,  rather  light  sub  -f-  [I'fstris'], 

pergrdtus,  very  pleasing  per  -{-  g  rat  us. 

a.  Compound  adjectives,  which,  like  magnanhnus,  indicate 
the  possession  of  some  quality,  are  called  possessives.  The 
second  part  of  these  compounds  is  almost  always  a  noun. 
Thus  :  multangulus,  many-cornered  ;  quadnipes,  four-footed. t 

b.  Other  compound  adjectives  and  all  compound  nouns  are 
sometimes  distinguished  from  the  possessives  by  the  name  de- 
terminatives, because  their  first  part  determines  how  the  mean- 
ing of  the  second  part  is  to  be  ai)plied. 

Note.  In  nouns  and  adjectives  compounded  with  prepositions  or  pre- 
fixes, in  is  much  more  often  a  negative  prefix  than  a  preposition,  sub  h;is  a 
diminutive  force, />«•  and  (less  commonly)  prae  an  intensive  force,  as  in  the 
examples  above. 

*  J.  e.,  an  officer  who  rules  between  the  death  of  one  king  and  the  ac- 
cession of  the  next. 

t  Such  compounds  in  English  generally  end  in  -ed,  as  in  the  translations 
of  the  examples  above  ;  but  compare  wortls  like  bald-head,  lap-streak. 


. 


COMPOUND   NOUNS    AND   ADJECTIVES. 


177 


296.  (1.)  When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  noun  or 
adjective  is  a  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  stem  ending  in 
a  vowel,  this  vowel  is  usually  dropped  if  the  second  part 
begins  with  a  vowel,  as  in  magnanimns  and  funamhulus, 

above. 

(2.)  When  the  second  part  begins  with  a  consonant, 
and  occasionally  when  it  begins  with  a  vowel,  the  stem 
vowel  of  the  first  part  is  retained  but  generally  weakened 
to  i,  as  in  sacrilegus  above,  or  in  tuhicen,  trumpeter  (Ju- 
la.  +  [re;^]),  arcitcnens,  bow-holding  {arcu-  +  ten'ens). 
a.  Sometimes  the  stem  vowel  of  the  first  part  is  only  flattened 
to  O  or  u,  especially  in   compounds  of  early  date.     Thus:  — 
viocuruSy  overseer  of  roads      via-  -(-  \_curus']. 
Trdiugena,  Trojan-born  Troia-  +  [<yre?ia]. 

quadrupes,  four-footed  quadro-  -\-  i>es. 

297.  (1.)  If  the  first  stem  ends  in  a  consonant  it 
suffers  in  early  compounds  only  the  euphonic  changes  re- 
quired by  the  rules  in  Q^  ff.,  as  index  for  iusdex,  judge 
(i.  e.,  right-speaker). 

(2.')  Generallv,  however,  consonant  stems  assume  a 
vowel  after  the  analogy  of  the  other  stems.  This  vowel 
was  origin  all V  o,  but  is  generally  weakened  to  i  or  some- 
times  flattened    to   u,    as    with    the   real    stem   vowels. 

Thus :  — 

parriclda,  murderer  of  a  father      pair-  +  i  +  [cida']. 
morigerus*  complying  rmJr-  +  i  +  [gems']. 

pedisequaA  female  attendant  ped-  +  i  +  [sequa]. 

298.  Most  compound  verbs  are  formed  of  simple  verbs 
and  prepositions.     Thus  :  — 

incipid,  seize  upon,  begin        in  -f-  capid. 

avfero,  take  away  ab  -\- fero. 

subverto,  overturn  sub  -\-  verto. 

•  Literally,  earning  (i.  c,  putting  up  with)  a  person's  whims. 
t  Literally,  foot-follower. 


/ 


178 


WOKD-FORMATION. 


a.  The  prepositions  were  earlier  adverbs,  and  in  composition 
often  retain  their  adverbial  force.  Cf.  i  prae,  sequor,  go  before, 
I  (will)  follow  (Ter.,  And.,  i.,  1,  144),  with  ut  cdnsvUbiis  llctores 
praelrent,  that  lictors  should  walk  before  the  consuls  (Cic,  Re 

JPub.,  ii.,  31,  55). 

b.  The  following  compounds  of  verbs  with  other  words  than 

prepositions  occur  :  — 

adsuefacio*  )  wuJisuefacio,  tame. 

consuefacio,  )  *^^^^^^"'-  patefacio,  open. 

henefaclo,  benefit.  satisfacio,  satisfy. 

calefacid,  make  warm.  tremefacio.t  cause  to  tremble. 

commonefacio,  remind  ioTCihly.  maid,  prefer  {mage  +  void), 
labefacio,  make  totter.  nolo,  be  unwilling  (ne  +  void), 

malefacio,  do  harm  to.  satago,  be  busy  enough  {sat  + 

ago). 

299.  In  the  second  part  of  words  compounded  with 
a  preposition  or  the  negative  preEx  in-,  vowel  weakening 
generally  occurs.     Thus :  — 

conficid,  cdnfectum      con  +  facw,  factum, 

imperd  in  (prep.)  -|-  pard. 

inimmts  in-  (neg.)  +  amicus, 

iniquus  in-  (neg.)  +  aequus. 

a.  In  compounds  of  iacid  the  verb  form  api)ear8  as  icvj, 
before  which  the  vowel  of  a  preposition  ending  in  a  vowel  is 
retained  long,  and  that  of  one  ending  in  a  consonant  is  often 
lengthened.     Thus  :  — 

dbicld.  deicin.  tnilcio. 

conicid.  dbicid.  sUbiciO. 

300.  A  very  few  words  are  compounded  of  more  than 
two  stems.     Thus  :  — 

suovetaurilla  t         su-  +  ovi-  -f  tauro- 
a.  Words   of    which   both  parts  are  inflected  are,  properly 

♦  The  nature  of  the  first  part  of  these  compounds  of /an  J  is  obscure  ;  it 
is  probably  a  noun  fomi  or  possibly  an  infinitive. 

t  A  sacrifice  consisting  of  a  swine,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull. 

X  These  words  are  accented  like  the  simple  fado  ;  as,  henef&'cit. 


FORMS   OF   PREPOSITIONS   IN   COMPOUNDS. 


179 


speaking,  not  compounds,  and  in  the  best  usage  are  written 
sejjarately.  Thus  :  ius  iurandum,  oath  ;  res  publica,  state  ; 
verl  simili'i,  likely. 

b.  So  also  forms  like  tmdtiitiodls  (i.  e.,  multls  m/)dis),  inprl- 
mis,  agri  cultura,  aquae  ductus,  pater  familids,  are  not  real 
compounds,  but  only  phrases  which  have  grown  more  or  less 
together.  Perhaps  also  satis  facid,  bene  facid,  etc.,  should  be 
classed  with  these  loose  unions  of  words  rather  than  as  com- 
j)ound  verbs.  In  anifnadvertd  (i.  e.,  animum.  advertd)  the  union 
is  disguised  by  the  dropping  of  the  accusative  ending  -um. 

c.  From  real  compounds  are  to  be  distinguished  derivatives 
from  compounds,  such  as  the  following :  — 

benefiriuin,  kindness,  from  benejlcus  (bene-,  stem  of  old  form 
of  bonus,  and  ficus,  from  root  of  facid). 

sdlstitium,  solstice,*  as  if  from  sdlstitus  {sdl-  and  status), 
tergi versa rl,  shuffle,  as  if  from  tergiversus  {tergo-  and  versus). 

Cf.  cdgitdre,  to  meditate,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
pound of  co7n  and  agitdre,  or  as  a  frequentative  of  cdgere,  itself 
a  compound  of  co?n  and  agere. 

Note.  Latin  did  not  develop  the  ability  to  form  compounds  to  an3rthing 
like  the  extent  of  the  Greek  and  other  kindred  langTiages.  Most  of  the 
compounds  formed,  except  those  with  prepositions  or  the  negative  prefix 
in-,  are  rare  and  confined  chiefly  to  the  poets. 

Forms  of  the  Prepositions  in  Compounds. 

301.  Prepositions  ending  in  a  consonant  vary  greatly 
in  the  degree  in  which  their  final  consonant  is  assimilated 
with  the  initial  consonant  of  the  other  part  of  the  com- 
pound.    Thus,  in  the  best  usage  :  — 

(1.)  ab  is  written  before  d,  h,  i  consonans^  1,  n,  r,  s. 
Thus :  ab-c?ico,  ab-^ orreo,  ab-iec^ws,  a,h-iudicd,  ab-lego, 
ab-ni/o,  ah-ripio,  ab-«?/m. 

abs  before  c,  t.     Thus  :  abs-ceJo,  sibe-tineo. 

as  before  p.     Thus  :  as-poi'to. 

a  before  f  in  Orful,  and  before  m  or  v.  Thus :  Brmoved^ 
a-t'oco. 

*  The  time  when  the  sun  seems  to  stand  still. 


180 


WORD-FORMATION. 


au  before  f  in  BM-fero  and  ^M-fugid. 

(2.)  ad  is  written  before  b,  d,  f,  h,  i  consondns,  m,  n, 
q,  V.  Thus:  ad-hibd,  ad-duco,  a.d-fatim,  ad/ero,  ad- 
haerco,  ad-if/^o,  ad-mlrabills,  ad-moneo,  ad-nj/o,  ad-quiro, 

Sid-voco 

Generally  before  g,  1,  P,  r,  s.  Thus :  ^d-gredior,  ad- 
Ugo,  Sid-pctd,  ad-rof/o,  ad-sum.  Otherwise  assimilation 
takes  place.     Thus :'  ag-fjer,  sX-Ugd,  av-peto,  ar-rogo. 

ac  before  c.     Thus  :  SiC-cipio. 

ad  or  a  before  gn,  sp,  sc,  st.  Thus:  a-g nosed  (a-d- 
nosco),    Sid-spird     (Gr-spiro},    &d-.^c'iscd,    ad-stringd    (a- 

stringo), 

ad  or  at  before  t.     Thus :  at-traho  (ad-traho), 

(3.)  ante  has  the  form  anti  in  anti-c//)o  (from  an  ob- 
solete anti-ceps),  BXiti-cipatlo,  3Jit\-stcs,  anti-.s'^o.* 

(4.)  com  is  written  before  b,  m,  p.  Thus:  com-huro, 
coTn-mitto,  corn-pages,  com-paro. 

con  before  c,  d,  g,  i  cdfisojums,  q,  t,  v,  and  generally 
before  1  and  r.  Thus:  con-clpio,  con-dwo,  con-gerD, 
con-iilro,  con-qiieror,  con-temno,  con-roco,  con-lego  (col- 
lego),  con-loqvinm  {coUoquium),  con-mo  (cor-rwo).^ 

po  ,  1  -^^r-^'  "    Thus  :  c6n/./o,  con-sterno,  con-slsto. 

CO  before  gn,  n,  and  before  vowels  t  and  h,  and  when 
contracted  as  in  cogo.  Thus :  c6-gndscd,  co-necto,  c6- 
nlveo,  co-nltor.     (Cf.  conubivm.) 

(5.)  ex  is  written  before  c,  h,  p,  q,  s,  t.  Thus  :  ex- 
celsus,  en-cipio,  ejL-haurid,  e^-peto,  eiL-qulro,  e^-specto, 

e^-tendo. 

e  before  b,  d,  g,  i  consonans,  1,  m,  n,  r,  v.  1  hns  : 
e-blandior,  o-duco,  e-gredior,  e-greglus,  e-luro,  e-labor, 
e-mineo,  e-neco,  e-ripib,  e-vado. 

ef,    and  sometimes  ec,  before  f.     Thus :     ef-fero  and 

(less  commonly)  ec-fero. 

*  Cf.  the  old  forms  antiJ-ed,  antid-eo,  antid-hdc. 
t  Comedo  may  be  an  exception. 


)■ 


M 


1 


FORMS   OF   PREPOSITIONS   IN   COMPOUNDS.  181 

(6.)  in  is  written  before  c,  d,  g  (except  gn),  h,  i  con- 
so?ians,  n,  q,  t,  v.  Thus  :  in-cedo,  in-duco,  in-gemisco, 
in-hld,  in-iungo,  in-n'itor,  in-quiro,  in-tendo,  in-vddo. 

in  is  also  generally  written  before  1  and  sometimes  be- 
fore b,  m,  p,  r.  Otherwise  assmiilation  occurs  before 
1  and  r ;  and  im  is  written  before  b,  m,  p.  Thus :  in- 
lustro,  un-buo,  in-inittd  (un-m'Uto),  im-pero  (in-2)erd), 
in-ruo  (ir-riio). 

in  before  f,  s.     Thus  :   In-fero,  in-sero. 

a.  AVhat  has  been  said  of  the  preposition  iii  is  equally  true  of 
the  negative  prefix  in-.  We  write,  therefore,  irUlberalis,  in- 
mortal  is  {hrh-inortalls),  In-sons,  iri-visus,  etc. 

L  The  negative  prefix,  however,  unlike  the  preposition,  oc- 
curs before  gn^  and  then  has  the  form  I ;  as,  i-gnarus,  l-giwsco, 

(7.)  ob  is  written  before  d,  h,  i  consonans,  1,  m,  n,  r, 
8,  t,  V.  Thus :  oh-daco,  oh-haereo,  oh-iectiis,  oh-iurgo, 
ob-llnd,  oh-mutesco,  oh-nubb,  oh-ruo,  oh-sisto^  oh-tlneo^ 

oh-venlo. 

Assimilation  generally  takes  place  before  c,  f,  p. 
Thus  :  oc^Mrro,  of-fero,  op-peto, 

o  is  written  in  o-mitto,  and  o-perlo, 

obs  in  obs-oZe.sco,  and  without  the  b  in  os-tendo. 

(8.)  per  is  unchanged,  except  in  pe-/cro  for  per-mro. 
&-ierd  is  also  sometimes  written. 

(9.)  sub  is  written  before  d,  h,  i  cbnsonans,  1,  s,  t,  v. 
Thus:  sub-Jwco,  sub-Aczereo,  Qub-iungo^  sub-/fi'o,  sub- 
lustris,  8uh-sistd,  8ub-tc?idd,  suh-venio. 

Sometimes  before  m  and  r.  Thus  :  sub-moreo  (sum- 
moved)^  suh-ripio  (sur-r/p/o). 

BUS  (for  subs)  in  aus-cijiio,  sus-ci^o,  sus-petido,  sus- 
tineo,  su3-t)di, 

su  in  au-spicere,  su-splro. 

Assimilation  occurs  before  c,  f,  g,  p,  and  sometimes  m 


182 


WORD-FORMATION. 


7 


QUANTITY   OF   COMPOUNDS. 


183 


and  r  (see  above).  Thus :  Buo-curro*  suf^ero^  eng-gero, 
sup-peto,  sup-pled. 

(10.)  trans  is  written  before  d,  f,  g,  m,  p,  v.  Thus  : 
trans-o z^rro,  trans^ero,  tThns-fuga,  tT&ns-gredior,  trans- 
mitto^  trans-por^o,  trans-reAo. 

tran  before  s.     Thus  :  tran-.scW6o,  trsxi-scendd. 

trans  or  tra  before  d,  n.  Thus :  trans-r/?7co  (tra- 
duco^^  tra-c/o,  trhns-nato  (trh-nato)  : 

302.  Among  the  inseparable  prepositions  — 

(1.)  amb  becomes  am  before  consonants,  chiefly  p. 
Thus  :  sun-puto,  am-plector.  But  an  before  f,  h,  or  a 
palatal  mute.  Thus :  an-Ac/o,  a.n-quird  (cf.  an-ceps^  an- 
ft'actus^, 

(2.)  dis  is  written  in  dis-7i/asco,  and  before  c,  p,  q,  t, 
and  s,  followed  by  a  vowel.  Thus  :  dis-cedo,  dis-par, 
dis-pnto,  dis-qint'o,  dis-tcndo,  dia-sentio  (but  di-sertus^ 
from  dis-sero}, 

dif  before  f.     Thus  :  dif/ero,  dit-ficilis. 

di  before  other  consonants.  Thus :  dl-duco,  di-gero, 
di-moveo^  di-scindo. 

dis  or  di  before  i  consonans.     Thus  :    dis-i?/n^o,  but 

di-indlco, 

(3.)  re  (so  also  pro)  retains  the  original  d  before 
vowels.     Thus  :  red-eo.     Also  in  red-do. 

303.  A  few  compounds  with  prepositions  ending  in  a 
consonant  suffer  contraction.     Thus  :  — 

surgo  for  siih  -\-  re  go,  per  go  for  per  -|-  rego. 

porio     "  po    -\-  sino. 

Quantity  of  Compounds. 

304.  Compound  words  generally  retain  the  quantity  of 
the  parts  of  which  they  are  composed,  even  though  vowel 
change  may  have  taken  place. 

*  Here  also  suh  is  sometimes  left  unchanged. 


I 


Note.  Tlie  following  observations  are  inserted  here  for  the  convenience 
of  the  learner,  although  some  of  the  words  treated  ar3  not  compounds ;  for 
example,  quidam. 

305.  i  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  words  like  quidam^ 
qulvlsy  etc.,  if  that  part  is  declined.  Thus  :  qullibet, 
qulntmque,  etc.,  but  quidem. 

306.  The  following  words  beginning  with  pro  (and 
their  derivatives)  have  the  o  short:  — 

a,  procella,  blast,  storm.  profringo,  break  up. 

prof  and,  desecrate.  profugiO,  flee  from. 

profecto^  surely.  profundus^  deep. 

profestus^  non-festival  (day),     pronepos^  great-grandson. 

profirlscor,  start.  propes,  a  piece  of  rigging. 

profiteor,  profess.  prop'inquus,  near. 

profarl,  s])eak  out.  prater vos  {-us),  forward. 

h.  All  Greek  words,  and  the  following  with  their  deriva- 
tives :  — 

prohiiSj  first  class.  proco,  demand. 

probrum,  wrong.  procus,  suitor. 

prope,  near.  propitius,  propitious, 

c.  The  o  is  common  in  propago,  f.,  a  sHp,  propagare,  to 
propagate,  and  prop'inare,  to  drink  to  the  health  of. 

307.  The  following  compounds  of  ne  have  the  e  long; 
otliers  have  it  short :  — 

necubi  nequam,  nequitia. 


nescius. 

nescio. 

neve. 


li 


necunde.  neqiiuquam. 

nedum.  neqmquam. 

nPnio.  nequiter. 

308.  The  following   quantities  are  useful  to  remem- 
ber :  — 

allntbX.  uhivis.                          qiiandoquidem. 

slcuhi.  utinam.                         sfquidem. 

uh  ir  u  m  qice.  iJnde  m .                          n  isi. 

uhinam.  equidem.                       quasi, 

tdjique.  quidem.                        alibi. 


184 


SYNTAX. 


THE  SENTENCE. 


185 


Note  1.  An  interesting  relation  exists  between  the  consonants  of  many 
primitive  words  in  Latin  and  those  of  the  corresponding  words  in  English, 
both  being  derived  from  the  same  (Indo-European)  parent  language.  This 
relation  may  be  indicated  by  the  following  scheme :  — 


Latin. 

English. 

Latin. 

English. 

C 

h* 

canisj 

hound. 

fS 

k 

genusy 

kin. 

t 

th 

tres, 

three. 

d 

t 

decern^ 

ten. 

p 

f 

pater, 

father. 

b  [rare) 

P 

labrum, 

lip. 

f 

b 

fero,  f rater, 

bear,  brother. 

1 

light. 

m 

mens, 

mind. 

n 

novos, 

new. 

r 

rectus, 

right. 

s 

sudvis,  ^suddj 
iuvenis, 

sweet. 

i  consondns 

y 

young. 

V 

w 

ma,  volnus. 

way,  wound. 

Note  2.  It  will  be  seen  that,  as  far  as  the  mutes  are  concerned,  the 
English  word  shows  the  mute  which  occupies  in  the  scale  smooth,  middle, 
rough,  the  place  next  after  the  Latin  mute  (Grimm's  Law  of  the  Per- 
mutation of  Mutes). 

SYNTAX    {Syntaxls), 
The  Sentence. 

309.  A  sentence  (sententia)  is  the  statement  of  a 
complete  thought  in  words ;  as,  canes  Icitrant,  the  dogs  are 
barking. 

310.  (1.)  That  -about  which  something  is  said  is  called 
the  subject  (subiectum}  of  the  sentence. 

(2.)  That  which  is  said  of  the  subject  is  called  the 
PREDICATE  (praedicatum). 

Thus,  in  the  above  sentence,  canes  is  the  subject  and  latrant 
is  the  predicate.  In  the  sentence,  Hannibal,  magnus  dux  Kar- 
thaginiensium,  sempiternum  erga  Rdniands  odium  iurdvitj 
Hannibal  the  great  Carthaginian  leader  swore  everlasting  hatred 

*  This  h  is  the  remnant  of  an  earlier  ch. 


V 


'^ 


1 


f 

i 


towards  the  Romans,  the  subject  is  Hannibal  magnus  dux 
Kurthaginiensium,  the  predicate  sempiternum  erga  Romanos 
odium  iuraoit. 

311.  (1.)  A  sentence  containing  only  one  subject  and 
predicate  is  called  a  SIMPLE  sentence. 

(2.)  A  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  members, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  subject  and  predicate,  is  called 
a  COMPOUND  sentence.     Thus  :  — 

Ldtravit  canis  —  et  fur  velociter  fugit,  the  dog  barked  and 
the  thief  ran  quickly  away;  cum  pugnae  finis  esset  f actus  — 
eos  —  qiil  ceciderant  —  sepeliebant,  when  the  battle  was  fin- 
ished, they  began  to  bury  those  wlio  had  fallen. 

312.  The  different  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
are  called  clauses. 

313.  Clauses  are  either  principal  or  subordinate. 

314.  (1.)  A  PRINCIPAL  (also  called  independent) 
clause  is  one  whicli  makes  complete  sense  by  itself ;  as, 
ldtravit  canis,  or  eos  sepeliebant. 

(2.)  A  subordinate  (or  dependent)  clause  is  one 
which  makes  complete  sense  only  when  taken  with  some 
other  clause  upon  which  it  is  said  to  depend.  Thus :  cu7n 
jni(jn(te  finis  esset  facti/s,  and  qui  ceciderant,  in  the  sen- 
tence above. 

a.  Sentences  which  contain  subordinate  clauses  and  only  one 
principal  clause  are  sometimes  called  complex  sentences  ;  as, 
Fhdcion  fuit  perpetud  paiiper,  cum  dltissimiis  esse  posset,  Pho- 
cion  was  always  poor,  when  he  might  have  been  very  rich.  The 
term  *'  compound  sentence  "  is  then  confined  to  sentences  which, 
like  ldtravit  canis  et  fur  velociter  fugit,  have  more  than  one 
independent  clause.  In  comjdex  sentences  the  principal  clause 
is  often  called  the  main  clause. 

b.  Parts  of  a  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  which 
are  not  subject  and  predicate  are  called  phrases.  Thus :  mdg- 
nus  dux  Karthdginiensium  ;  fortiter  pugndre. 


i 


18G 


SYNTAX. 


315.  Sentences  are  distinguished  as  — 

(1.)  Declarative  (decldrdfivae)^  or  such  as  have  the 
form  of  a  statement ;  as,  venfi  spirant^  the  winds  blow. 

(2.)  Interrogative  (interrogdtwae)^  or  such  as  have 
the  form  of  a  question ;  as,  sjnraiitne  venfi^  do  the  winds 
blow? 

(3.)  Exclamatory  (^exdumdtonae)^  or  such  as  have 
the  form  of  an  exclamation  ;  as,  quam  vehementer  spirant 
vent%  how  fiercely  the  winds  blow  !  Utinani  veniat^  oh 
that  he  may  come  ! 

(4.)  Imperative  Qimperdt~ivae\  or  such  as  have  the 
form  of  a  command,  an  exhortation,  or  a  prohibition ;  as, 
splrdte,  venfi^  blow,  winds  ;  veniat  helium^  let  the  war 
come  ;  rie  qiiaesieris,  ask  not. 

a.  Sentences  expressing  exhortation  are  also  called  horta- 
tory ;  those  denoting  prohibition,  prohibitory. 

Rules  of  Agreement. 

316.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person.     Thus  :  — 

JEf/o  scrlbdy  I  write ;  nos  veniemus^  we  shall  come ;  tii  leglsy 
you  read ;  hi  Graecl  sunt,  these  men  are  Greeks ;  RdmidiLS 
Hornam  condidit,  Romulus  founded  Rome. 

a.  When  the  subject  is  a  personal  pronoun,  especially  in  the 
first  or  second  person,  it  is  seldom  expressed  except  when  it 
marks  a  contrast  or  is  otherwise  emphatic.  The  person  and 
number  are  shown  by  the  ending  of  the  verb.     Thus :  — 

Cupid y  I  desire  ;  vlvis,  thou  livest ;  kabemus,  we  have  ;  di- 
cunt,  they  say.  But :  eg5  rer/es  elecl,  vos  tyrannds  introdUci- 
tis,  I  drove  out  kings,  but  you  are  bringing  in  tyrants  ;  tii  es 
patronus,  tu  pater^  you  are  my  defender,  you  my  father. 

317.  The  nominative  of  the  third  person  is  further 
omitted :  — 


1 


RULES   OF   AGREEMENT. 


187 


(1.)  When  it  has  been  expressed  in  a  previous .  clause  (gen- 
erally as  subject,  but  also  sometimes  in  other  constructions). 
Thus  :  — 

"M-OSSL  profluit  ex  monte  Voseyo  et  in  Oceanuni  Influit  (Caes., 
B.  G.,  iv.,  10),  the  Meuse  rises  in  the  Vosges  mountains  and 
empties  into  the  ocean  ;  cursorem  mlserunt  ut  id  nuntidret, 
they  sent  a  courier  to  carry  that  news  (Cor.  Nep.). 

(2.)  When  people  in  general  are  meant,  as  when  we  say 
"  men,"  "  they,"  ''  one."     Thus  :  — 

Dlcunt,  they  say  ;  ut  diunt,  as  they  say ;  mdxime  admiran- 
tur  euni  t/uJ  pecunid  non  inovetur,  men  particularly  admire  one 
who  is  not  influenced  by  money  (Cic). 

(3.)  So  in  treatises  or  discussions,  when  the  subject  denotes 
a  type  of  persons,  where  we  say  "  one."     Thus  :  — 

In  vlctil  conslderdre  oportet  apud  queni  et  qiCo  more  et  cuius 
arbitrdtu  sit  educdtus,  in  regard  to  manner  of  living  we  must 
consider  in  whose  family  and  in  what  fashion  and  under  whose 
direction  one  has  been  brought  up  (i.  e,,  the  person  in  question) 
(Cic,  I?ia.y  i.,  25,  35). 

318.  Certain  verbs  are  used  in  the  third  person  singular 
witliout  a  subject  (impersonal,  impersondrui).     Thus:  — 

(1.)  Verbs  denoting  the  state  of  the  weather  or  operations  of 
nature  ;  as,  fulyurat,  it  lightens ;  ningit,  it  snows  ;  iRcescebat, 
it  was  growing  light. 

(2.)  The  verbs  of  feeling:  miseret,  pity;  paenitet,  repent; 
Xnget,  be  disgusted  ;  pvdet,  be  ashamed ;  taedet,  be  tired. 
Thus  :  — 

Eos  ineptidrum  paenitet,  they  repent  (lit,  it  repents  them) 
of  their  follies  ;  miseret  te  alidrum,  tui  te  nee  miseret  nee 
pudet,  you  do  pity  others  ;  for  yourself  you  have  neither  pity 
nor  shame  (Plant.,  Trin.,  ii.,  4,  30). 

Note.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  real  subject  of  the  feeling  here  is  by  a 
gpraiamatical  idiom  made  the  object  of  the  verb. 

(3.)  The  passive  of  intransitive  verbs  and  of  some  transitive 
verbs.     Thus  :  — 


188 


SYNTAX. 


Favetiir  tM  a  me,  you  liave  my  support ;  ad  exittcm  ven- 
tum  est,  the  end  was  reached ;  actum  est  de  imperio,  the  su- 
premacy is  lost  (lit.,  it  is  finished  with  regard  to  the  supremacy). 

(4.)  Especially  the  neuter  of  the  gerundive  with  est,  erat, 
etc.,  denoting  what  must  be  done.     Thus  :  — 

Si  VIS  7ne  fl?re,  dolendum  est  prtmum  ips'i  tibf,  if  you 
want  me  to  weep,  you  must  first  grieve  yourself  (Hor.,  Fpisty 

ii.,  3,  102). 

a.  Many  apparently  impersonal  verbs  have  a  clause  or  an 
infinitive  as  subject.  So  especially  words  like  accldlf,  happens  ; 
constat  J  is  accepted  as  true  ;  conaefiit,  is  agreed.    Thus :  — 

Even'it,  senibus  amhdbus  simul  iter  ut  esset,  both  old  gentle- 
men happened  to  take  the  same  road  (Ter.,  Phor.,  i.,  2,  15)  ; 
vacdre  culpa  magnum  est  soldciu^n,  to  be  free  from  fault  is  a 
great  consolation  ;  orandum  est  ut  sit  mens  sdna  in  corpore 
sand,  we  should  pray  for  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  (luv., 
Sat,,  X.,  356)  ;  ordtdrem  irdscl  nan  decet,  it  is  unseemly  for  an 
orator  to  give  way  to  anger. 

319.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  generally  have  a 
plural  verb.     Thus  :  — 

Furor  irsique  mentem  praecipitant,  madness  and  passion 
rob  [me]  of  my  cool  reason  (Verg.) ;  grammatice  quondam  dc 
musice  iunctae  fuerunt,  grammar  and  music  were  once  united 
(Quint.). 

a.  The  verb  is  always  plural,  when,  as  in  the  second  example, 
it  would  make  no  sense  with  the  subjects  taken  separately. 

320.  With  several  singular  subjects,  however,  the  verb 
is  singular  if  — 

(1.)  They  form  together  one  idea  ;  as  :  — 

Senatus  populusque  Romdnus  iussit,  the  Roman  senate 
and  people  gave  orders ;  mens  enini  et  ratio  et  c5nsilivim  in 
senibus  est,  intelligence,  reason,  wisdom  belong  to  old  men. 

(2.)  Generally  if  connected  by  a  word  meaning  "or"  or 
"  nor  "    {aut,  veL  neque,  etc.)  ;  as  :  — 

Si  Socrates  aut  Antisthenes  diceret,  if  Socrates  or  Antis- 
thenes  said  [this]. 


APPOSITIVES    AND    PREDICATE   NOUNS. 


189 


321.  But  the  verb  often  agrees  with  the  nearest  nomi- 
native, or  with  the  most  important  one,  and  is  understood 
with  the  rest.     Thus  :  — 

Tuni  aetds  v'lresque,  turn  avlta  gloria  animum  stimulabat, 
then  his  (youthful)  age  and  strength  and  the  thought  of  his 
grandfather's  glory  goaded  on  his  spirit  (Liv.). 

a.  This  is  always  the  case  when  the  verb  belongs  to  each  sub- 
ject separately  ;  as  :  — 

Magis  ego  te  amo  quani  tu  m?,  I  love  you  more  than  you 
love  me. 

322.  When  a  plural  verb  is  used  with  subjects  of  differ- 
ent persons,  it  is  of  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second, 
and  of  the  second  i)erson  rather  than  the  third.     Thus  :  — 

Si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis.  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and 
Tullia  are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

323.  A  relative  pronoun  may  represent  any  one  of  the 
three  ])ersons ;  its  verb  takes  therefore  the  person  of  the 
antecedent.     Thus :  — 

Ego,  qui  t?  c5nfirm6,  iqjse  me  non  possum,  I,  who  comfort 
you,  cannot  comfort  myself. 

For  the  aprreement  of  the  verb  with  an  appositive  or  a  predicate  noun, 
see  330. 

For  the  constructio  ad  sensum,  see  345  ff. 

ApposmvEs  AND  Predicate  Nouns. 

324.  A  noun  qualifying  another  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting the  same  j>erson  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  case. 

325.  When  the  qualifying  noun  is  annexed  to  the  other 
noun  without  the  intervention  of  a  verb  it  is  called  an 
appositive,  and  the  words  are  said  to  be  IN  apposition. 
Thus :  — 

Sclpio  dux,  Scipio,  the  general ;  nos  consides,  we  consuls  ; 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  of  Rome  ;  Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorum 
opvlentissimum,  totum  cremdtum  est  fahnine,  Volsinii,  a  very 
rich  town  of  the  Tuscans,  was  wholly  consumed  by  fire  caused 


190 


SYNTAX. 


by  lightning  (Plin.,  N.  IT.,  ii.,  53)  ;  Tullia,  deliciae  nostrae, 
mumisculum  tuumjiarjltat,  Tullia,  my  darling,  has  a  httle  favor 
to  beg  of  you  (Cic,  Att.,  i.,  8.) 

a.  A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  to  two  or  more  nouns,  and 
is  then  usually  plural.     Thus  :  — 

M.  Antonius  C.  Cassius  tribuni  plebls,  Marcus  Antonius 
and  Gaius  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  commons. 

b.  So  when  two  nouns  are  connected  by  cumj  an  appositive 
takes  the  case  of  the  former ;  as :  — 

Dicaearchum  vera  cum  Aristoxeno,  doctos  sane  homi- 
nes omittamus,  let  us  leave  out  Dicaearclius  with  Aristoxenus, 
[who  are]  certainly  learned  men. 

c.  A  noun  denoting  a  whole  may  have  in  apposition  to  it 
words  denoting  the  parts  (partitive  apposition) .     Thus  :  — 

Onerariae.  pars  maxlrna  ad  Aeglmaruyn^  aliae  aduersus 
lu'hem  ipsam  deldtae  siint^  the  ships  of  burden  were  mostly 
carried  to  Aegimurus,  others  over  against  the  city  itself  (Liv.). 

d.  Quisque^  as  an  appositive,  generally  remains  in  the  nomina- 
tive even  wlien  the  other  word  has  a  different  case  ;  as  :  — 

Mtiltis  sUn  quisque  imperlum  petentibus,  while  many  were 
trying  to  get  the  power,  each  for  himself  (Sail.,  lug.,  18). 

e.  Ipse  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way  by  Livy  and  later 
writers. 

For  the  apposition  of  common  nouns  with  names  of  towns  in  construc- 
tions of  place,  see  426,  ^r  and  h. 

326.  In  the  same  sense  as  a  noun  in  apposition  is  some- 
times used  a  genitive  depending  on  the  noun  (see  351, 
note),  especially  with  names  of  cities  ;  as,  nrbs  Homae, 

a.  The  expression  '^  my  name  is  so  and  so  "  may  be  trans- 
lated into  Latin  in  the  following  three  ways :  — 

Camillus  *  Tnihi  est  nomen  (proper  name  predicate  nomi- 
native). 

Camillo  mihi  est  nomen  (proper  name  in  app.  with  mihf). 
Camilll  mihf  est  nomen  (     '*  "        '*    gen.  with  nomen). 

Note.     Cicero  uses  most  often  tlie  first  of  the  three  ways  given. 
*  Lit.,  "  Camillus  is  the  name  to  me." 


PREDICATE   NOUNS. 


191 


I 


327.  When  the  annexed  noun  is  combined  with  the 
other  by  the  copula  sum  or  other  similar  verb  (expressed 
or  implied  *)  it  is  called  a  predicate  noun.     Thus  :  — 

Ira  furor  brevls  est,  anger  is  a  short  madness ;  ego  vocor 
Lyconides,  I  am  called  Lyconides ;  iudicem  rne  esse  volo^  I 
wish  to  be  a  judge. 

328.  Predicate  nouns  are  most  commonly  used 
with  :  — 

(1.)  The  copula  sum  ;  as  :  — 

Socrates  sapiens  erat,  Socrates  was  a  philosopher. 

(2.)  Intransitive  verbs  denoting  existence,  position,  or 
motion ;  as  :  — 

Haec  incedit  regina,  she  walks  [like]  a  queen  ;  tune  venis 
legatus,  do  you  come  as  an  ambassador  ? 

(3.)  The  passive  of  verbs  meaning  — 

a.  To  name  or  call ;  as  :  — 

Cicero  pater  patriae  est  appellatus,  Cicero  was  called  the 
father  of  his  country  ;  tile  liber  orator  inscribitur,  that  book 
is  entitled  ''  The  Orator." 

b.  To  choose,  render,  appoint ;  as  :  — 
Consul  creatus  est,  he  is  appointed  consul. 

c.  To  esteem,  reckon,  consider  ;  as  :  — 

Vir  bonus  semper  erat  habitus,  he  had  always  been  con- 
sidered a  good  man  ;  artium  domiciliimi  putantur  Athenae, 
Athens  is  thought  to  be  the  home  of  the  arts. 

(4.)  Many  other  verbs,  to  denote  a  purpose,  occasion, 
or  circumstance  of  the  action  ;  as  :  — 

Puer  hoc  audivi,  I  heard  this  when  a  boy  ;  Brutus  cdnsxil 
auspicin  nuntiavit,  Brutus,  as  consul,  declared  the  omens. 

329.  Appositives  and  predicate  nouns  agree  in  gender 

*  Wlien  the  verb  is  only  implied,  the  noun  is  sometimes  called  a  pred- 
icate APPOSITIVE ;  as,  Ciceronem  consulem  credverunt,  they  appointed 
Cicero  [to  be]  consul. 


192 


SYNTAX. 


with  the  nouns  they  qualify,  if  they  have  a  form  of  the 
same  gentler.     Thus  :  — 

Usus,  magister  egregius^  experience,  an  excellent  master  ; 
philosophia,  v'ltae  magistra,  philosophy,  the  guide  of  life  ; 
licentia  corruptrix  est  morum,  excessive  freedom  is  a  cor- 
rupter of  character. 

a.  There  was  a  tendency  to  make  the  two  nouns  agree  in 
number  also.     Thus  :  — 

Omltto  illas  omnium  doctrlnamm  inventrices  Athenas,  I 
leave  out  Athens,  that  well  known  discoverer  of  all  the  branches 
of  learning  (cf.  Cic,  de  Or.,  i.,  4,  13). 

b.  When  a  verb  has  a  complementary  infinitive  (see  532) 
dependent  upon  it,  its  predicate  noun  is  still  nominative  ;  as  :  — 

Nol't  esse  scelerdtdnim  laudator,  I  would  not  be  a  eulogist 
of  rascals. 

c.  In  the  poets  a  similar  usage  is  sometimes  found,  by  which 
an  infinitive  which  should  have  a  subject  is  used  without  a  subject, 
and  the  predicate  noun  which  would  be  in  the  accusative  is  at- 
tracted into  the  nominative  ;  as  :  — 

Uxor  invictt  lovls  esse  nescls,  know'st  thou  not  thou  art  the 
wife  of  Jove  invincible  ? 

330.  A  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a  predicate  noun, 
or  a  noun  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  especially  if  it  is 
nearer  than  the  subject.     Thus  :  — 

AmantiuTn  irae  avwr'is  integrati5  est,  the  quarrels  of  lov- 
ers are  a  renewal  of  love  (Ter.,  An.,  iii.,  3,  23)  ;  Tungri,  civi- 
tas  Galllae,  fontem  habet  Inslgnem,  the  Tungri,  a  state  of 
Gaul,  have  a  remarkable  fountain  (Plin.,  N.H.,  xxxi.,  2  (8),  12). 

Note.  This  is  always  the  case  when  the  appositive  is  the  name  of  a 
person. 

Kindred  Constructions. 

331.  Instead,  of  a  predicate  noun  (nominative  or  accu- 
sative), occur  also  :  — 


AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES. 


193 


(1.)  A  dative  of  service  (see  385)  ;  as,  hoc  miht  erat 
curae. 

('J.)    An  ablative  with  pro  (see  430)  ;    as,  pro  filio   eum 

habebat. 

(3.)  A  genitive  after  loco,  in  place  of,  or  in  numero,  in  the 

number  of. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

332.  Adjectives,  adjective  pronouns,  and  par- 
ticiples agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender.,  number.,  and 
cane, 

333.  When  such  words  are  applied  to  their  nouns  di- 
rectly they  are  called  attributives.     Thus  :  — 

Bonus  vir,  a  good  man  ;  benigna  mater,  a  kind  mother ; 
haec  res,  this  thing. 

334.  When  they  are  applied  iudirectly  (by  means  of 
a  verb  expressed  or  implied)  they  are  called  PREDICATE 
adjectives,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Mea  mater  est  benigna,  my  mother  is  kind  ;  hae  leges  uti- 
lissimae  ducuntur,  these  laws  are  considered  most  beneficial; 
hae  sunt  uerae  d'luitlae,  this  is  real  riches. 

Note.  Appositive.s  and  attributives  assume  the  thing  said  of  the  noun 
which  they  qualify  ;   predicate  nouns,  adjectives,  etc.,  affirm  it. 

335.  Adjectives  *  belonging  to  two  or  more  nouns  of 
the  same  gender  are  put  in  the  plural.     Thus  :  — 

Et  hfc  imperator  et  ille  scriptor  praeclari  sunt,  both  this 
general  and  tliat  writer  are  famous. 

336.  When  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  if  they 
denote  things  with  life,  the  adjective  is  masculine  rather 
than  feminine  ;  if  they  denote  things  without  life,  the 
adjective  is  generally  neuter.     Thus  :  — 

Pater  mihX  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  my  father  and  mother 

*  ^Vhateve^  is  said  of  the  agreement  of  adjectives  applies  also,  of  course, 
to  adjective  pronoun:!  and  participles. 


_A_ 


194 


SYNTAX. 


are  dead  ;  regna,  imperia,  nabilitates,  honores,  divitiae, 
in  casu  sita  sunt,  kingdoms,  offices,  distinctions,  honors,  riches' 
depended  on  chance.  * 

Note.     This  is  the  more  common  use  with  a  predicate  adjective. 

337.  Or  the  adjective  may  be  — 

(1.)   Repeated  with  each  noun  ;    as  : 

Sempronlae   multae   facetiae   multuspie   lepos   inerat 
Senipronia  was  gifted  with  much  wit  and  grace.  ' 

(2.)  Expressed  with  one  noun  and  understood  with  the 
others ;  as : — 

Hominis  utUitdtl  agri  omnes  et  maria  parent,  all  lands 
and  seas  serve  the  needs  of  mankind. 

Note.     These  two  uses  are  perhaps  the  more  connuou  with  attributive 
319-32T)    ^^"'""^''"^  *^^  agreement  of  the  verb  with  several  subjects, 

338.  Two  adjectives  in  the  singular  often  belong  to  a 
plural  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Cum  legionibus  secunda  et  tertia.  with  the  second  and 
third  legions. 

a.  A  singular  noun,  denoting  different  instances  of  the  same 
kind,  may  have  several  adjectives  agreeing  with  it ;  as  :  — 

BeUum  Punicum  et  Hispaniense,  the  Punic  and  Spanish 
wars. 

339.  Any  part  of  speech  used  as  a  mere  word  is  treated 
as  a  neuter  noun,  and  takes  an  adjective  in  the  neuter 
singular.     Thus  :  — 

Supremum  vale  dixit,  he  uttered  the  last  farewell ;  eras 
istud  quando  venit?  when  is  that  to-morrow  you  mention  com- 


ing: 


340.  When  the  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  omitted  after 
a  dative  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  a  predicate 
adjective  is  sometimes  put  in  the  dative,  sometimes  in 
the  accusative,  as  if  the  subject  had  been  expressed. 
Thus ;  — 


AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES. 


195 


I 


i 


Da  mihi  iusto  sanct62i^  videri,  grant  me  to  seem  just 
and  holy ;  si  clol  Itotnam  Licet  esse  Gaditanum,  if  a  Roman 
citizen  may  [also]  be  a  citizen  of  Cades. 

341.  A  participle  which  should  regularly  agree  with 
the  subject  of  a  clause  sometimes  agrees  with  a  predicate 
noun,  or  with  a  noun  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  if 
these  are  nearer  the  participle.      (Cf.  330.)     Thus  :  — 

yrm  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda,  not  every  mistake 
is  to  be  called  folly  ;  illdrum  urhem  ut  propugnaculum  op- 
positiim  esse  harbaris,  [he  said]  their  city  stood  as  a  bulwark 
in  the  way  of  the  barbarians. 

a.  An  adjective  which  belongs  in  sense  to  a  genitive  is  some- 
times made  to  agree  with  the  noun  on  which  the  genitive  de- 
pends.    Thus  :  — 

Ad  maiora  initia  re'rum  ducentibus  fatis,  the  fates  leading 
to  the  beginnings  of  greater  things. 

h.  An  adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  upon  which  a  partitive 
genitive  depends  sometimes  takes  tlie  gender  of  that  genitive  ; 
as  :  — 

Velocissimuin  omtnum  animalium  est  ddphinus,  the 
swiftest  of  all  animals  is  the  dolphin. 

c.  An  adjective  which  belongs  in  sense  to  the  antecedent  of 
a  relative  pronoun  is  often  put  into  the  relative  clause  and  made 
to  agree  with  the  relative.     Thus  :  — 

Inter  ioros  quos  inconditos  ian'unt,  among  the  rude  jests 

which  they  bandy  about. 

Note.  This  is  the  usual  arranp^ement  with  numerals,  comparatives, 
and  superlatives.  Thus :  nocte  quam  in  terris  ultimam  egit,  the  last 
night  he  spent  on  earth  ;  Aesculapitis,  qui  primus  volmis  obligivisse  dicitur, 
-^Siculapius,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  bind  up  a  wound. 


Agreement  of  Relative  Pronouns. 

342.  Relative    pronouns   agree  with  their  antece- 
dents in  gender  and  number^  but  their  case  depends  upon 


196 


SYNTAX. 


the   construction  of  the    clause   to    which   they  belong.* 
Thus  :  — 

Puer  qui  lerjit,  the  boy  who  reads  ;  erj?)  non  sum  qualis  eravtj 
I  am  not  such  as  I  was ;  Deiis,  cuius  mUnere  vlvimus,  cui 
nullus  est  simills^  quem  coltimts,  a  quo  facta  sunt  omnia,  est 
aetermis,  God,  by  whose  bounty  we  Hve,  whom  none  is  Hke  unto, 
whom  we  worship,  by  whom  all  tbings  were  made,  is  eternal. 

a.  The  relative  pronoun  seems  to  have  been  originally  an  ad- 
jective pronoun  agreeing  with  a  noun  in  its  own  clause  and  re- 
ferring to  another  case  of  the  same  noun  with  a  demonstrative 
or  similar  word  in  the  antecedent  clause.  Examples  of  such  use 
still  occurred  in  classical  Latin  ;  as  :  — 

Erant  omnlno  duo  itinera  quibus  itineribus  dornd  exire 
possentj  there  were  only  two  routes  by  which  (routes)  they 
could  go  from  home  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  6). 

b.  Usually,  however,  only  one  of  these  nouns  is  expressed  ; 
as  :  — 

(1.)  The  antecedent  noun  expressed  ;  as  :  — 

Tantae  multitudinis  quantam  capit  urbs  nostra  concursus 
est  ad  me /actus,  there  was  a  gathering  to  meet  me  of  a  crowd 
as  large  as  our  city  contains  (Cic). 

(2.)  The  noun  in  the  relative  clause  expressed  ;  as  :  — 
Quibus  de  rebus  ad  me   scrlpsLstl  coram  vtdebimus,  we 
will  see  about  the  things  of  which  you  wrote  me  when  we  meet 
(Cic.)  ;  in  quem  prlmum  egressl  sunt  locum  TrTna  vacatur, 
the  first  place  at  which  they  landed  is  called  Troy  (Liv.). 

c.  The  noun  is  most  commonly  thus  expressed  in  the  relative 
clause  only  :  — 

(1.)  When,  as  in  the  examples,  the  relative  clause  precedes. 
A  demonstrative  then  often  stands  in  the  second  clause  ;  as :  — 

Ad  quas  res  aptissimi  erimus,  in  iis  potLsshnum  elaborab'i- 
mus,  we  shall  toil  most  earnestly  in  those  things  for  which  we  are 
best  fitted. 

*  The  rule  applies,  of  course,  not  only  to  relative  pronouns  proper, 
but  to  all  pronouns  used  to  refer  to  words  in  clauses  other  than  their 
o^^^L 


AGREEMENT  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


197 


(2.)  When  the  noun  is  in  aj)position  with  some  word  in  the 
antecedent  clause,  or  with  the  antecedent  clause  itself;  as  :  — 

Santones  non  longe  a  Tol5satium  finibus  absu?ity  quae 
civitas  est  in  provincial  the  Santones  are  not  far  from  the 
borders  of  the  Tolosates,  which  state  is  in  the  Province  (Caes.). 

d.  Sometimes  the  relative  clause  comes  between  the  antece- 
dent noun  and  the  rest  of  the  antecedent  clause.  The  ante- 
cedent then  usually  has  the  case  of  the  relative.     Thus :  — 

Urbem.  quam  statiw  vestra  esty  the  city  which  I  am  building 
is  yours. 

e.  Occasionally  the  relative  takes  the  case  of  the  antecedent 
instead  of  its  own  proper  case.     Thus  :  — 

Cu7n  scrlbds  et  aliquid  agas  eorum  quorum  cdnsuestl,  when 
you  write  and  speak  of  some  one  of  the  things  you  are  wont 
to  speak  of  (Cic,  Fam.,  v.,  14,  l). 

Note,  d  and  e  are  called  cases  of  attraction,  and  are  rare  in  classical 
prose. 

343.  When  two  or  more  clauses  in  which  the  relative 
has  different  constructions  refer  to  the  same  antecedent, 
sometimes  the  relative  is  repeated  in  different  cases  (as 
in  the  third  example  under  342),  sometimes  only  the  first 
relative  is  expressed  and  the  others  are  either  omitted  or 
represented  by  demonstratives.     Thus  :  — 

Borchus  cu7n  pedltibus,  qu5s  fdius  eitfs  adduxerat^  neque 
in pridre  pTignd  adfuerant,  Rdmanos  invadnnt,  Bocchus  and  the 
infantry  which  his  son  had  brought  and  [which]  had  not  taken 
part  in  the  earlier  battle  attack  the  Romans  ;  Brutus  ille  cui 
Caesar  ignoverat  et  eimi  posteu  f'dium  fere  habuerat,  that  Bru- 
tus whom  Caesar  had  pardoned  and  had  afterwards  treated  al- 
most like  a  son. 

a.  When  a  predicate  noun  is  used  with  a  relative,  the  pro- 
noun commonly  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  rather  than 
with  the  antecedent.     Thus  :  — 

Career  ille  quae  lautumiae  vocantur^  that  dungeon  which 
is  called  the  *'  Stone  Quarry." 


I 


198 


SYNTAX. 


c 


CONSTRUCTIO   AD   SENSUM. 


199 


h.  But  if  the  sentence  is  negative  or  if  the  predicate  noun  is  a 
proper  name,  the  reUitive  agrees  with  its  antecedent  as  by  the 
general  rule.     Thus  :  — 

Nullum  factum  quod  stultltla  appellarl  potest  laude 
dignum  est,  no  act  which  can  he  culled  folly  is  worthy  of  i)raise ; 
flUmen  quod  nomhiatur  Rhenus,  the  river  which  is  called  the 
Rhine. 

344.  A  relative  having  more  than  one  antecedent  is 
always  plural,  but  its  gender  is  regulated  like  that  of  ad- 
jectives (see  336  and  337).     Thus  :  — 

Nlnus  i'f  Semiramis  qui  Bahi/ldna  condiderantj  Ninus  and 
Senuianiis  who  had  founded  Balndon  ;  naves  ef  captivds* 
quae  ad  Chlum  capta  erant,  the  ships  and  prisoners  which  had 
been  taken  at  Chios  ;  tu  ef  pater,  qm  in  cont'tvio  eratis,  you 
and  father,  who  were  at  the  feast. 

COXSTRUCTIO    AD    SeNSUM. 

345.  Sometimes  the  various  kinds  of  words  whose 
agreements  have  been  treated  in  the  foregoing  sections 
reo-ulate  their  agreement  not  by  the  grannuatical  form  as 
described,  but  in  accordance  with  the  real  meaning  in- 
volved. This  is  called  constructio  ad  sensum,  con- 
struction according  to  the  meaning.  It  is  particularly 
common  where  the  word  which  settles  the  agreement  is  a 
collective  noun. 

346.  Thus  a  plural  verb  is  often  used  :  — 

(1.)  When  the  subject  is  a  collective  word  ;  as  :  — 

Uterque  edrum  ex  castrls  exercitum  educunt,  both  of  them 
lead  their  armies  out  of  camp  (Caes.)  ;  pars  epuns  onerant 
mensas,  some  load  the  tables  with  food  (Verg.). 

a.  Abstract  nouns,  and  nouns  like  villes,  eques,  etc..  are  often 
used  collectively;  as,  ndhiUtas  for  "nobles,"  eques  for  "the 
cavalry." 

Note.    The  plural  verb  serves  to  bring  out  more  distinctly  the  individu- 

*  Treated  as  "things." 


ality  of  the  persons  meant  by  the  collective  noun.  The  construction  is 
rare  in  simple  sentences  in  Cicero,  Caesar,  and  Sallust,  common  in  Livy, 
and  especially  frequent  in  poetry. 

(2.)  With  a  singular  subject  combined  with  cum  and 
the  ablative  ;  as :  — 

Bocchus  cum  peditibus  postremam  Rdmanunim  aciem 
invadunt.  Bocchus  and  his  infantry  attack  the  rear  of  the  Ro- 
man line  (Sail.,  /"i/-)* 

347.  So  also  the  number  and  gender  of  an  adjective 
sometimes  follow  the  sense  implied  :  — 

(1.)  In  a  collective  noun  or  its  equivalent ;  as  :  — 

Pars  per  agros  dilapsi  .  .  .  suam  qulsque  sjyem  exsequentes, 
part,  scattering  through  the  country,  .  .  .  following  each  his 
own  hope  (Liv.)  ;  Latium  Capuay^e  agro  multati,  Latium 
and  Capua  were  fined  in  land  (i.  e.,  forced  to  give  up  part  of 
their  territory)  (Liv.). 

a.  In  such  cases,  when  the  verb  is  plural  (see  346)  the  ad- 
jective is  always  plural. 

b.  Sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  only  the  gender  is  regu- 
lated by  the  constrnctid  ad  sensum.     Thus  :  — 

Pars  arduus  altls  pulverulentus  equls  furit,  part  raised 
aloft  on  tall  horses  dash  about  covered  with  dust  (Verg.). 

c.  Sallust  often,  and  other  writers  sometimes,  thus  use  a  neu- 
ter adjective  with  several  feminine  nouns  which  denote  things. 
Thus  :  — 

Plerosque  vel5citas  et  regio  hostihus  tgnara  tutata  strnt, 
their  speed  and  the  enemy's  ignorance  of  the  country  saved 
most  of  them  (Sail.). 

(2.)  When  the  word  with  which  the  adjective  would 
agree  is  iini)lied  in  a  possessive  pronoun.     Thus  :  — 

Solius  meum  peccutum  conrlgl  non  potest,  my  sin  only 
cannot  be  made  good  (Cic.)  ;  cf.  pugna  R5mana  stahllls  su5 
pondere  incumbentium  in  hosteni,  the  fighting  of  the  Romans 


200 


SYNTAX. 


[was]  invincible  as  they  bore  down  upon  the  enemy  with  the 
very  weight  of  their  line  (Liv.). 

348.  Examples  of  similar  agreement  on  the  part  of  the 

relative  are  — 

(1.)  Antecedent  a  collective  word  ;  as  :  — 
Equitatum,  qu5s  niiserat,  the  cavalry,  whom  he  had  sent ; 

genus,  qvl  premuntur^  a  class  who  are  crushed  (Cic). 

(2.)  Antecedent  not  a  collective  word ;  as  :  — 

Ahundantia  edrum  rerum,  quae  mortules  prima  jnvtani^  .a 
plenty  of  those  things  which  mankind  imagine  of  the  first  im 
portance  (Sail.). 

(3.)  Antecedent  implied  in  a   possessive  pronoun,  or 
similar  adjective  ;  as  :  — 

Nostrum  consilium  laudarulum  est,  qui  nohierim^  my  design 
is  praiseworthy,  who  was  unwilling  (Cic). 

For  the  remaining  syntax  of  adjectives  and  pronouns,  see  438  ff. 


CASES  {Casus), 
NOMINATIVE  (Ndminatlvus), 

349.  Except  as  already  treated  (namely,  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb  or  as  an  appositive  or  predicate  noun),  the  nomi- 
native is  used  only  as  follows,  and  that  rarely. 

(1.)  In  the  poets. 

a.  With  an  interjection,  to  make  an  exclamation  ;  as  :  — 
En  ego,  tester  Ascaniiis,  here  am  I,  your  Ascanius  (Verg., 

Ae.,  v.,  672). 

b.  Instead  of  the  vocative  ;  as  :  — 

O  ulr  fortis  atqne  ainicus,  O  hrave  man  and  friendly  (Ter.). 

(2.)  In  the  poets  and  late  prose  writers,  as  the  mere 
name  of  a  word  independently  of  the  construction  of  the 
sentence.     Thus :  — 

Resonant  mlhf  "  Cynthia  "  sllrae,  let  the  woods  reecho  me 
*' Cynthia"  (Prop.,  i.,  18,  .31). 


NOMINATIVE   AND   GENITIVE   CASES. 


201 


GENITIVE  {Genet'ivus). 
350.    The  GENITIVE  is   properly  the    case  which   ex- 
presses the  relation   of  one  noun  to  another^  and  is  in  its 
nature  equivalent  to  an  adjective. 

Note.     The  genitive  came  to  be  used  with  eerUin  adjectives  and  verbs, 
as  well  as  with  nouns.      Its  various  uses  may  be  thus  tabulated  :  — 

SUBJECTIVE.  OBJECTIVE. 

Genitive  of  Source,  Cause,  or  Mate-     With  Nouns  of  Action  or  Feeling. 

"     Adjectives. 


rial. 

Genitive  of  Possession. 
Partitive  Genitive. 
Genitive  of  Characteristic. 
Predicate  Genitive. 


"     Verbs  ^ 


Genitive  of  Price. 


of  Pity,  etc. 

''  Feelin-. 

'*  Remembering,  etc. 

"  Accusing,  etc. 

Interest  and  Rcfert. 


351.  Any  noun  limitin<^  the  meaning  of  another  and 
not  denoting  the  same  thing  is  regularly  put  in  the  geni- 
tive.    Thus :  — 

Gloriae  amor,  love  of  glory;  arma  Achillis,  the  arms  of 
Achilles ;  nemorum  cUstds,  the  guardian  of  groves. 

Note.  'Die  difference  between  an  appositive  and  a  limiting  genitive  is 
that  the  appositive  denotes  the  same  thing  as  the  noun  modified  by  it, 
while  the  genitive  reguhuly  denotes  a  different  thing,  although  occasionally 
used  like  an  appositive,  iw  in  vilium  irae,  urbs  Romae.     (Cf.  326  ) 

352.  Many  relations  which  in  English  are  expressed 
by  prepositions  are  denoted  in  Latin  by  the  genitive. 
Some  of  the  commonest  are  — 

(1.)  Source ;  as,  soils  radi'i,  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
(2.)  Cause  ;  as,  dolor  podagrae,  pain  from  the  gout. 
(3.)  Possession;    as,    Cacsaris    domus,  the    house    of 

Cajsar. 

(4.)  Material;  as,  monies  aitrl,  mountains  of  gold. 

353.  (1.)  A  genitive  is  called  SUB-TECTIVE  when  it  de- 
notes the  subject  of  an  action  or  feeling  implied  in  the 
noun  it  limits,  or  indicates  that  to  which  a  thing  belongs. 

(2.)   It  is  called  oiukctive  when  it  denotes  the  object 


202 


SYNTAX. 


towards  which  the  action  or  feeling  implied  in  its  noun  is 
directed.     Thus  :  — 

SUBJECTIVE.  OBJECTIVE. 

vii'Tyrum  facta,  deeds  of  men.         odium  vitl,  hatred  of  wrong. 
animl  dolor,  pain  of  spirit.  virtutis  amor,  love  of  virtue. 

Ira  lundnis,  the  wrath  of  Juno,     deslderium  otl,  a  longing  for 

rest. 

a.  Sometimes  the  same  expression  may  serve  as  either  a 
subjective  or  an  objective  genitive,  and  tlie  context  must  sliow 
^vhich  is  meant.  Thus  :  Caesaris  amor  may  mean  somebody's 
love  for  Caesar,  or  Caesar's  love  for  somebody  else. 

b.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  or  to  secure  greater  emphasis,  a  preposi- 
tion with  its  case  is  often  used  instead  of  the  genitive ;  as,  odium 
erga  Karthaginienses,  hatred  towards  the  Carthaginians. 

c.  Two  genitives  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun,  one 
being  usually  subjective,  the  other  objective.     Thus  :  — 

Fro  veterihus  Helvetiorum  iniuriis  populi  Romani.  for 
the  old  wrongs  of  the  Helvetians  against  the  Roman  people 
(Caes.)  ;  llUns  admlnlstratio  prouinciae,  his  performance  of  the 
duties  of  his  office  (Cic). 

d.  The  noun  upon  which  a  genitive  depends  is  regularly 
omitted  in  certain ,  idiomatic  phrases;  as,  ad  Dfnnae,  near 
Diana's  temple ;  sometimes  in  other  expressions  ;  as,  o  miserae 
sort  is  !  O  ye  of  unhapi)y  lot!  solet  7niM  in  mentem  venire  ill'ius 
temporis,  the  thought  of  that  time  is  wont  to  come  into  my  mind. 

e.  Especially  is  it  omitted  in  expressions  of  comparison  where 
in  English  ''  that  of  "  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Numae  regninn  pacatitis  erat  quam  RomuU,  Numa's  reign 
was  more  peaceful  than  that  of  Romulus. 

Partitive  Genitive. 

354.  A  word  denoting  a  PART  is  limited  by  the  genitive 
of  the  whole  whose  part  is  taken.  Thus:  marjnus 
hominum  numerus,  a  large  number  of  men. 

356.    The    partitive    genitive    is    especially    common 

with  — 


PARTITIVE   GENITIVE. 


203 


(1.)  Numerals  and  nouns  of  number  or  quantity ;  as :  — 
Equitum  centum  quinquaginta  interfectl,  a  hundred  and 

fifty   horsemen  [were]   killed   (Curtius)  ;  p)^^'^^9^^^^  pondus 

argenti,  a  very  great  weight  of  silver. 

(2.)  Adverbs  denoting  quantity  or  amount  (used  as 
nouns)  ;  as :  — 

Satis  eloquentiae,  parum  sapientiae,  enough  eloquence,  but 
too  little  wisdom. 

(3.)  Adverbs  of  place  or  direction  ;  as  :  — 

Ubi  terrarum  sumus  ?  where  in  the  world  are  we  ?  quo 
amentiae  proyressl  est  is,  to  what  a  pitch  of  madness  have  ye 
gone  ? 

a.  The  word  of  direction  is  generally,  as  in  the  example,  used 
figuratively. 

(4.)  Comparatives  and  superlatives  ;  as:  — 

Oratorum  jjraestantlssinius,  most  famous  of  orators. 

(5.)  Neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives,  where  in  English 
the  adjective  agrees  with  the  noun  ;  as :  — 

Plas  eloquentiae,  more  eloquence ;  tantum  fidei,  so  much 
honor ;  hoc  aetatis,  at  this  time  of  life. 

a.  Like  partitive  genitives  are  the  redundant  genitives  adhUo 
locorum,  till  now  (Plant.)  ;  posteu  loci,  afterwards  (Sail.);  in- 
tered  loci,  meanwhile  (Ter.)  ;  etc. 

b.  Prldie  and  postrldie  are  followed  by  a  genitive  which 
seems  to  be  partitive  in  its  nature;  as,  postrldie  eius  diei, 
the  day  after  that  day  (Caes.)  ;  prldie  Insididrum,  the  day  be- 
fore the  plot  (Tac). 

GE^^T^VE  of  Characteristic  or  Quality. 

356.  The  genitive,  with  an  adjective  agi*eeing  with  it, 
is  used  to  denote  a  property,  quality,  or  characteristic. 
Thus :  — 

Adtdescens  siunmae  audaciae,  a  youth  of  the  utmost  daring 
(Sail.)  \  fossa  pedum  viginti,  a  ditch  twenty  feet  wide  (Caes.). 


204 


SYNTAX. 


7 


Predicate  Genitive. 

357.  The  genitive  is  often  used  in  the  predicate  with 
sum  and  like  verbs  to  denote  the  owner  of  something,  or 
the  person  (or  thing)  whose  duty,  characteristic,  or  busi- 
ness a  given  thing  is.     Tims  :  — 

Haec  domus  est  Caesaris,  this  house  is  Caesar's  ;  temeritas 
est  florentis  aetatis,  prudentia  senectutis,  rashness  belongs 
to  the  blooui  of  life,  discretion  to  old  age  (Cic). 

Note.  The  predicate  genitive  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  direct 
genitive  which  a  predicate  noun  bears  to  an  appositive. 

KiNDKED  Constructions. 

358.  Instead  of  the  foregoing  genitives  the  following 
constructions  are  sometimes  used  :  — 

(1.)  Instead  of  a  subjective  genitive  an  adjective  is 
often  used,  either  agreeing  directly  with  the  noun  on 
which  the  genitive  would  depend,  or  serving  as  a  predicate 
adjective.     Thus :  — 

Amor  patrius,  a  father's  love ;  7idn  est  menttrl  meum,  it  is 
not  my  habit  to  lie. 

a.  An  adjective  less  commonly  takes  the  place  of  an  objec- 
tive genitive ;  as,  metus  hostilis,  fear  of  the  enemy. 

(2.)  Instead  of  the  possessive  genitive  of  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  corresponding  possessive  pronoun  is  almost 
invariably  used  ;  as  :  — 

Liber  meus,  my  book ;  tuas  litterus  exspectd,  I  await  a  letter 
from  you.     (Cf.  also  the  second  example  under  1.) 

a.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  also  sometimes  used  for  an 
objective  genitive  ;  as,  mea  iniurla,  injury  to  me  (Sallust). 

(3.)  Instead  of  a  possessive  or  objective  genitive  a 
dative  of  possession  (see  384  below)  is  sometimes  used. 
Thus :  — 

Se  tertium  esse  cui  fdtum  foret  urbis  pot'irl,  [that]  he  was 
the  third  whose  destiny  it  was  to  be  master  of  the  city  (Cic.)  ; 


GENITIVE   CASE. 


205 


H 


f 


huic  causae  patrdnus  exstiti,  I  have  come  forward  as  cham- 
pion of  [for]  this  cause  (Cic,  Rose.  Avi.,  2,  5). 

(4.)  Instead  of  a  partitive  genitive  a  partitive  apposi- 
tion (see  325,  r,  above)  is  used ;  as :  — 

In terfec tores,  pars  in  forum,  pars  Sijracusas  pergunt, 
some  of  the  slayers  proceed  to  the  market  place,  others  to  Syra- 
cuse. 

(5.)  Sometimes  also,  instead  of  a  partitive  genitive,  an 
ablative  with  ex  or  cZe,  or  i/i,  or  an  accusative  with  inter^ 
is  used  ;  as  :  — 

Nemo  de  eis,  no  one  of  them ;  acerrimns  ex  sensibus,  the 
sharpest  of  the  senses ;  primus  inter  omnes,  first  among  all. 

(6.)  Instead  of  a  genitive  of  characteristic  an  ablative 
of  characteristic  (see  411  below)  is  often  used ;  as  :  — 

Hom6  antiqua  virtute,  a  man  of  old-time  vhtue. 

a.  The  genitive  is  used  here  in  questions  of  number,  measure, 
weight,  time,  space,  kind,  etc.  ;  as  :  — 

Filius  annorum  novem,  a  son  nine  years  old;  corona 
aurea  parvi  ponderis,  a  golden  wreath  of  little  weight ; 
huius  modi  quaestio,  a  question  of  this  sort. 

i.  The  ablative  is  used  of  physical  and  external  character- 
istics ;  as  :  — 

Afjesilaus  statura  fait  hiimili  et  corpore  exiguo,  A^esi- 
laus  was  of  low  stature  and  slight  frame;  homo  maxima 
barba,  a  man  with  a  very  long  beard  ;  flamen  difflcili  tran- 
situ ripis^we  praeruptis,  a  river  of  difficult  passage  and  steep 
banks. 

c.  Otherwise  the  two  cases  are  used  indifferently. 

Note.  For  the  idiomatic  accus<ative,  in  a  few  expressions,  instead  of  a 
genitive  of  characteristic,  see  398,  6,  below.  For  the  genitive  with  opus 
and  jisus,  see  417,  a,  below. 

Genitive  with  Adjectives. 
369.  (1.)  The  gfonitive  may  be  used  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  certain  adjectives. 


206 


SYNTAX. 


(2.)  In  classical  Latin  these  are  chiefly  adjectives  de- 
noting DESIRE,  KNOWLEDGE,  MEMORY,  PARTICIPATION, 
POWER,  FULLNESS,  LIKENESS,  and  their  opposites. 

360.  The  adjectives  most  commonly  used  with  the 
genitive  are  — 


Tfierrwr^  mindful. 
immemor^  unmindful. 
particejjs^  sharing  in. 
comjJOSy  having  control  over. 
consors^  partaking. 
experSy  having  no  part  in. 
inopSy  needy. 
InsuetuSf  unaccustomed. 
tnsolens,  unaccustomed. 
plenusy  full. 
incmisy  empty. 
similisy  like. 
adflnisy  allied  to. 


avlduSy  greedy. 
cupiilus,  eager. 
studlosuSy  zealous. 
fastldiosus,  squeamish. 
gnuniSy  knowing. 
igndruSy  ignorant. 
perltusy  skilled. 
imper'ituSy  unskilled. 
prude 7is,  discreet. 
imprudens,  indiscreet. 
providuSy  foreseeing. 
consciuSy  conscious  of. 
insciuSy  ignorant. 
rudis,  untaught. 

Thus :  — 

Avldus  laudis,  eager  for  praise;  memor  virtTitiSy  mindful  of 
valor ;  plena  timoris,  full  of  fear  ;  similis  patrisy  Hke  his 
father ;  etc. 

a.  Sallust  and  Livy  began  to  use  the  genitive  with  adjectives 
more  freely,  and  the  Augustan  poets  spread  the  construction  very 
widely  ;  cf.  integer  vttaey  pure  of  life  (Hor.)  ;  incertus  senten- 
tlaCy  unstable  in  opinion. 

For  animi,  etc.,  with  adjectives,  see  426,  b. 

361.  Participles  in  -ns  from  transitive  verbs,  when  used 
as  adjectives  and  thus  denoting  enduring  qualities,  often 
take  a  genitive,  while  in  their  participial  use  they  take  the 
accusative.     Thus :  — 

Epamindndas  erat  adeo  veritatis  diligens  ut  ne  ioco 
quidem  mentlretury  Epaminondas  was  so  devoted  to  truth  that 
he  would  not  He  even  in  jest;  semper  adpetentes  gloriae 


GENITIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES   AND   VERBS. 


207 


fuistisy  you  have  always  been  eager  for  glory;  but  mxirey  ter- 
ram  adpetenSy  aiming  at  possession  of  the  sea  and  land  (on  a 
given  occasion). 

Kindred  Constructions. 

362.  Instead  of  a  genitive,  many  of  these  adjectives 
sometimes  take  other  constructions  ;  as  :  — 

(1.)  An  accusative  with  a  preposition.     Thus :  — 
Avidus   in   dlreptidneSy  greedy   for  expeditions  of   plunder 

(Livy). 

(2.)  An  ablative  with  a  preposition.     Thus :  — 

Perltus  de  agr'icultUray  skilled  in  husbandry  (Varro). 

(3.)  An  ablative  of  specification  (see  412).    Thus:  — 

Praestans  ingenidy  preeminent  in  natural  endowment  (Cic). 

(4.)  A  dative.     Thus :  — 

Lupd  similis y  like  a  wolf. 

a.  Similis  and  dissimilis  seem  to  be  used  by  Cicero  with  the 

genitive  usually  in  speaking  of  ])ersons,  with  tlie  dative  always 

in  speaking  of  things. 

Gexitivic  with  Verbs. 

363.  The  genitive  is  also  used  with  several  classes  of 
verbs,  as  follows  :  — 

364.  (1.)  Verbs  denoting  pity  —  as  misereor  and 
miseresco  —  take  the  genitive.     Thus  :  — 

Miseremim  socidrumy  have  pity  for  your  allies  (Cic.)  ;  mise- 
rescite  regis,  pity  the  king  (Verg.). 

(2.)  The  impersonals  miserety  paenitet,  pigety  pudety 
and  taedety  take  the  genitive  of  the  object  towards  which 
the  feeling  is  exercised,  and  the  accusative  of  the  person 
who  has  the  feeling.     Thus :  — 

Mea  matery  tui  me  miseret,  mei  piget,  mother,  I  pity 
you  and  am  disgusted  willi  myself  (Accius)  ;  eos  ineptiariim 
paenitety   they    repent   of   their   follies    (Cic.)  ;    me   civitdtis 


208 


SYNTAX. 


morum  piget  tsiedet jite,  I  am  disgusted  and  weary  with  the 
manners  of  the  state  (Sail.). 

365.  Verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  —  as  7ne- 
min'i^  remlniscor,  obliviscor  —  take  the  genitive.    Thus :  — 

Alemint  vlvonim^  I  remember  the  living  (Cic.)  ;  reminlsci 
veteris  famae,  to  bear  in  mind  the  old  reputation  (Nep.);  inia- 
riarum  obllulscor,  I  forget  injuries  (Nep.). 

a.  One  verb  of  pitying  and  one  of  remembering  commonly 
take  the  accusative  ;  namely,  vi'iserari  and  recorddr'i  (both  depo- 
nents of  the  first  conjugation). 

b.  Other  verbs  of  these  classes  occasionally  take  the  accusative, 
especially  of  a  neuter  pronoun. 

366.  Verbs  of  reminding  and  warning  take  a  geni- 
tive of  the  thing  with  an  accusative  of  the  person. 
Thus  :  — 

Admonebat  alinm  egestdtis,  alium  cupldltatis  siiae,  he  would 
remind  one  of  his  want  of  money,  another  of  his  pet  passion 
(Sail.). 

367.  Verbs    of   ACCUSING,    CONVICTING,    condemning, 

and  ACQUITTING,  take  a  genitive  of  the  crime  or  of  the 
penalty.     Thus :  — 

Miltiades  accusatus  est  proditi5nis,  Miltiades  was  ac- 
cused of  treachery ;  Cicero  Verrem  avaritiae  nimiae  coarguit, 
Cicero  accused  Verres  of  excessive  gi-eed ;  ia7n  vie  ipse  iner- 
tiae  condemno,  I  already  condemn  myself  for  my  inactivity ; 
Caelius  iadex  absolvit  iniuriarum  e^im^  qui  Luc'dium  laese- 
ratj  Caelius  as  juryman  voted  to  acquit  of  wrong  the  man  who 
liad  injured  Lucilius. 

a.  The  genitive  is  used  to  indicate  the  penalty  when  it  is  an 
indefinite  sum  of  money  as  a  fine.  The  genitives  capitis^  pecuy 
niae,  capitalis  poenae^  voti,  and  some  others,  are  also  used  in  a 
sort  of  midway  sense  between  charge  and  penalty.     Thus :  — 

Quanti  est  damndtiis,  how  much  was  he  fined  ?  capitis 
hominem  innocentem  condemnanint^  they  condemned  a  guiltless 
man  to  death  (cf.  Cic,  de  Or.,  i.,  54,  233). 


GENITIVE   WITH    VERBS. 


209 


b.  The  penalty  is  otherwise  expressed  by  the  ablative  (always 
with  multure  or  when  it  is  a,  fixed  sum  of  money  as  a  fine),  or 
by  ad  or  in  with  an  accusative,  and,  in  the  poets,  rarely  by  a 

dative. 

c.  The  verbs  of  the  last  two  classes  (366  and  367 )  some- 
times take,  instead  of  the  genitive,  an  ablative  with  de  or  the 
accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun.     Thus  :  — 

De  aede  Tellaris  nie  admones,  you  remind  me  about  the 
temple  of  the  Earth  (Cic.)  ;  eds  h5c  moneo,  I  warn  them  of 
this  (Cic.)  ;  accusdre  de  nef/legentid,  to  accuse  of  negligence 
(Cic.)  ;  de  vi  condemndti  sunt,  they  were  condemned  for  vio- 
lence (Cic.)  ;  si  id  vie  nun  accusas.  if  you  do  not  accuse  me  of 
this  (Plant.).* 

d.  Some  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  take  simply  the  accusative  of 
the  crime  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  person  with  the  geni- 
tive of  the  crime.  So  especially  carpo,  culpa,  crlminor,  punio, 
reprehendo,  and  some  less  common  verbs. 

Interest  and  Refert. 

368.  The  impersonal  verbs  interest  and  refert  take  a 
genitive  of  the  person  (or  personified  thing)  whose  in- 
terest they  denote.     Tluis  :  — 

Interest  omnium  recte  facer e,  to  do  right  is  everybody's 
concern  (Cic). 

Refert  omnium  animadvert'i  in  maids,  all  men  are  inter- 
ested m  liaving  the  bad  punished  (Tac). 

a.  So  far  as  there  is  a  difference  in  the  two  verbs,  refert  ap- 

l)lie8  rather  to  outside  or  material  things,  interest  to  matters  of 

tbe  mind  or  character.     Cf.  the  examples. 

Note.  This  genitive  seems  to  have  started  with  interest  as  a  sort  of 
predicative  g-enitive  of  possession  {patris  interest  =  it  is  among-  a  father's 
possessions),  and  then  to  have  been  transferred  to  refert  through  the  anal- 
ogy in  the  meanings  of  the  verbs. 

369.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns, 

•  With  verbs  of  accusing,  etc  ,  the  neuter  pronoun  in  the  accusative  ia 
mostly  found  in  the  dramatic  poets. 


210 


SYNTAX. 


the  ablative  singular  feminine  of  the  corresponding  pos- 
sessives  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

• 

Tua  et  mea  max'ime  interest,  te  valere,  it  is  very  greatly 
for  the  interest  of  both  you  iind  myself  that  you  should  be  well 
(Cie.)  ;  mea  Jiihil  refert,  it  is  of  no  concern  to  me  (Ter.). 

a.  The  ablative  feminine  of  the  possessive  pronoun  is  com- 
mon with  refert ;  the  genitive  construction  is  said  to  occur  be- 
fore Livy  only  in  one  instance  in  Sallust  (/'/y..  Ill)  Cicero 
prefers  interest  to  7'efert,  and  uses  it  with  either  construction  in- 
differently. » 

Note.  The  origin  of  this  ablative  construction  is  still  in  dispute.  It 
seems  most  probable  that  the  construction  started  with  refert  an  mea  re 
Jert,  equivalent  to  e  mea  rejert,  it  points  in  the  direction  of  my  interests, 
(cf.  e  re  publico,  est,  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  interests  of  the  state), 
and  was  then  transferred  to  interest.  But  see  J.  H.  Schmalz,  in  Handbuch 
der  Altertumsuiss.f  ii.,  271. 

b.  Instead  of  the  above  constructions  is  sometimes  found  ad 
witli  an  accusative,  and  very  rarely  a  simple  accusative  or  a 
dative.     Thus :  — 

Ad  hondrein  meum  interest,  it  concerns  my  reputation  (Cic.)  ; 
quid   te  igltur  rettulit,   of  what  concern  was  that  to   you  ? 

(Plant.) 

370.  (1.)  The  degree  of  interest  is  expressed  by  an 
adverb  or  the  accusative  singular  neuter  of  an  adjective 
(used  adverbially),  or,  if  there  is  no  genitive  of  the  person 
interested,  by  a  genitive  (of  price ;  see  371). 

(2.)  That  which  causes  the  interest  is  expressed  by  a 
clause  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  or  in  apposition  with  a 
neuter  pronoun  which  serves  as  subject.  Ilefert  also 
sometimes  takes  a  personal  subject.     Thus  :  — 

Mdxime  interest,  queiu  ad  modum  quaeque  res  audldtur,  it 
makes  the  greatest  difference,  how  each  point  is  received ; 
tnultum  interest  rei  familidris  tuae,  te  quam  primum.  venire, 
it  is  of  much  importance  for  your  property  that  you  come  as 
soon  as  possible  ;  quod  permdgnl  interest,  pro  necessdrlo  saepe 
hahetur,  what  is  of  great  advantage  is  often  regarded  as  neces- 
sary. 


GENITIVE   OF   PRICE.  —  DATIVE. 


211 


For  the  genitive  instead  of  an  ablative  with  verbs  of  ceasing  or  freeing 
from,  see  414  ;  with  verbs  of  plenty,  see  409;  with /johor,  see  419,  6; 
for  the  locative  animi  with  verbs  of  emotion,  see  426,  6. 

Genitive  of  Price. 

371.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  indefinite  price  or 
value.     Thus :  — 

Voluptatem  virtus  minimi  facit,  virtue  holds  pleasure  of 
very  little  value  ;  eml  hortos  tanti,  quanti  volui,  I  bought  the 
grounds  for  the  price  I  wished. 

372.  The  genitives  most  commonly  so  used  are  — 

tantl,  so  nuich. 

quanti,  as  much,  or  how 

much  ? 
pluris,  more. 
inindris,  less. 
minimi,  very  little. 
parvl,  little. 
mdfjni,  at  a  high  price. 
And  rarely  viulti,  much,  and  mdioris,  at  a  higher  price. 

a.  In  colloquial  language  also  figuratively  — 
assis,  worth  an  as.  pHi,     worth  a  hair. 

fioccl,     '*      a  bit  of  wool.         pe7isiy      *'     weighing. 
naucl,    "      a  trifle.  terunci,   '*     a  copper. 

nihil'i,    *•      nothing. 

And  huius  (indicating  a  gesture  of  disdain). 
For  the  Ablative  of  Price,  see  408. 

DATIVE  (Dativus). 

373.  The  dative  is  used  chiefly  to  indicate  the  person 
or  thing  indirectly  concerned  in  the  action  of  a  verb,  and 
for  other  similar  relations. 

Note.     The  uses  of  the  dative  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 
Dative  of  Indirect  Object  Dative  of  Possessor. 

Dative  of  Advantage  or  Disadvantage.    Dative  of  Service. 
Ethical  Dative.  Dative  with  Adjectives. 

Dative  of  Agent.  Dative  with  other  Parts  of  Speech. 


permagm, )  ... 

-^ ,_   .    _      f  at  a  very  high 
plurimi,     >         .       '' 

_    .    _      V      price. 
maximi,     )      ^ 

tantldem,  at  the  same  price. 

quantiulSy     )  however  much 

quantllubety }      you  please. 

quantlcumque,  at  whatever 

price. 


212 


SYNTAX. 


DATIVE   OF   INDIRECT   OBJECT. 


213 


Dative  of  Indirect  Object. 

374.  The  dative  expressing  the  indirect  object  may 
be  used  — 

(1.)   With  intransitive  verbs.     Thus:  — 

Mea  domus  tibi  patet,  my  house  is  open  to  you  (Cic.) ;  licet 
nemini  contra  j^atriam  dUcere  exercitum,  no  one  has  a  right  to 
lead  an  army  against  his  country  (Cic). 

(2.)  With  transitive  verbs  in  addition  to  the  direct  object. 

Thus  :  — 

Hoc  tiht  promltto,  I  promise  you  this  (Cic.) ;  7nlht  respon- 
sum  deditj  he  gave  me  the  answer  (Verg.). 

375.  Several  classes  of  verbs  which  seem  transitive  in 
Eno-lish  are  intransitive  in  Latin,  and  therefore  take  their 
object  in  the  dative. 

376.  Such  are  most  verbs  meaning  to  favor,  please, 
TRUST,  believe,  HELP,  and  their  opposites ;  also  to  com- 
mand, obey,  serve,  resist,  envy,  threaten,  spake, 

PARDON,  BE  ANGRY,  etC.       ThuS  : 

Ilia  tibi  favet,  she  favors  you  (Ovid)  ;  mihi  placebat  PoTn- 
ponlus,  Pomponius  pleased  me  (Cic.)  ;  qui  sibi  fidit,  he  who 
trusts  in  himself  (Hor.) ;  Inumltd.scw.plns  mihi  credet  quam 
iurato  tibi,  he  will,  I  know,  trust  me  without  an  oath  more  than 
you  upon  oath  (Plant.,  Am.,  i.,  1,  281)  ;   wo/i  licet  sul  com- 
mod'i  causa  nocere  alteri,  it  is  not  lawful  to  injure  one's  neigh- 
bor for  one's  own  advantage  (Cic.)  :  imperat  aut  servit  collecta 
pecfnua  cuique,  gathered  gold  commands  or  serves  its  posses- 
sor (lit.,  each  one)  (Hor.)  ;  quo7iiamfa.ctidmini?mcdrumTeaia- 
tere  neqiiiverit,  since  he  could  not  withstand  the  faction  of  his 
enemies  (Sail.) ;  7idn  invidetur  illi  aetati.  that  time  of  life  is 
not  exposed   to   envy   (Cic);    wUu  vilnahatur,  he  threatened 
me  (Cic.) ;  bonis  nocet  qulsquls  parcit  malis,  he  wrongs  the 
good    who  spares   the  wicked  ;    Irascl   inimlcls,    to   be  angry 
against  one's  enemies  (Caes.). 

a.  luvoj  help,   and    its  compounds  ;   laedo,   injure ;    dUecto, 


i 


ohlecto,  delight,  and  sometimes  other  verbs  of  these  meanings, 
are  treated  as  transitives  and  take  the  accusative.     Thus  : 

Caesar  ad  Lingonns  llfteras  nnntidsque  mlslt,  ne  eos  fra- 
mento  neve  alia  re  iuvarent,  Caesar  sent  a  letter  and  messages 
to  the  Lingones  [bidding  them]  not  to  aid  them  with  grain  or 
anvthing  else  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  26) ;  hie  pulvis  oculum  meum 
laedit,  this  dust  hurts  my  eye. 

377.  (1.)  Verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  «(/, 
ante,  com,  in,  inter,  oh,  post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  com- 
monly have  intransitive  meanings,  and  therefore  take  a 
dative  of  indirect  object.     Thus  :  — 

Neque  enim  adsentior  iis,  for  I  do  not  agree  with  those 
(Cic,  ^//i.,4, 13) ;  quantum  nutura  hominis  pecudibus  ante- 
cedit,  as  much  as  man's  nature  has  the  advantage  over  the 
brutes  (Cic,  Off.,  i.,  30,  105) ;  omnibus  negotiis  7wn  inter- 
fuit  solum  sed  praefuit,  he  not  only  took  part  in,  but  presided 
over,  all  the  transactions  (Cic,  Fam.j  i.,  6)  ;  nee  umquam  suc- 
cumbet  inimicis,  nor  will  he  ever  yield  to  his  foes  (Cic, 
Deiot.,  13,  36). 

(2.)  But  not  infrequently  they  are  transitive,  and  then  take 
(like  any  transitive  verb)  a  direct  object  in  the  accusative, 
with  or  without  the  dative  of  indirect  object.     Thus  :  — 

Convocat  indites,  he  calls  together  the  soldiers;  munus 
oblre,  to  perform  a  duty  (Cic,  Ain.,21)\  ilium  praefecit  exer- 
citul,  he  set  him  over  the  army. 

(3.)  Sometimes  they  are  used  to  denote  relations  of  place, 
and  then  they  take  a  preposition  with  its  case  instead  of  the 
dative.*     Thus  :  — 

Inferre  slgna  in  hostes,  to  march  against  the  enemy;  ad- 
esse  in  senatU,  to  be  at  a  meeting  of  the  senate. 

378.  Several  verbs  take  the  dative  in  one  sense,  the 
accusative  in  another.     Thus,  especially  :  — 

•  Tliis  is  especially  common  with  words  compounded  with  ad  or  in.  When 
used  figuratively  all  these  words  usually  take  the  dative  (or,  if  transitive, 
the  accusative  ;  as,  sub'ire  pericula,  to  undergo  danger). 


214 


SYNTAX. 


metuere,  \ 
time  re,    ) 

consider  e, 


With  Accusative. 
be  afraid  of  somebody 


or  something. 


ask  advice  of,  consult. 

foresee. 

guard  against, 
regulate,  arrange, 
temper  (by  mixing). 


With  Dative. 

fear,  be  anxious,  for 
somebody  or  some- 
thing. 

take  counsel  for. 

prospicere, ) 

-   .  7-        -  provide  tor. 
pro V mere,  )  ^ 

cauere,  take  care  for,  guard. 

moderar'i,      control. 

tempera  re^     restrai  n . 

379.  Ddno,  present,  circAimdo^  surround,  and  ad- 
spergo,  sprinkle  or  scatter  upon,  take  either  a  dative  of 
the  person  with  an  accusative  of  the  thing,  or  an  accusa- 
tive of  the  person  with  an  ablative  of  the  thing.    Thus :  — 

Mihi  librum  dona v it,  he  presented  a  book  to  me  ;  me  libro 
donavit,  he  presented  me  with  a  book. 

Urbi  murum  circumdat,  he  puts  a  wall  round  the  city ;  ur- 
bem  murd  circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city  with  a  wall. 

Arae  sanguinem  adapergit,  he  sprinkles  blood  upon  the 
altar ;  aram  sanguine  adspergit,  he  sprinkles  the  altar  with 
blood. 

380.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  «5,  c?e,  ex.,  pro^  or 
circum,  and  the  verb  ademo^  take  a  dative  where  an  abla- 
tive of  separation  (see  413)  might  be  expected.    Thus  :  — 

Bona  mihi  extorsisti.  you  have  wrung  my  goods  from  me ; 
mulieri  anulum  detraxit,  he  took  the  ring  from  the  woman 
(t.  e.,  her  finger)  ;  id  mih!  tu,  C.  Verres,  eripuisti  atqiie 
abstulisti.  this  you  have  robbed  me  of  and  taken  from  me, 
Gains  Verres  (Cic,  in  CaeciL,  5,  19). 

a.  The  dative  is  always  used  of  persons  and  sometimes  of 
things.  The  action  is  thus  regarded  as  something  done  to  the 
object. 

b.  But  with  things  the  ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition 
is  perhaps  more  common,  especially  if  an  idea  of  place  is  in- 
volved.    Thus :  — 


DATIVE  OF   ADVANTAGE   OR   DISADVANTAGE.        215 

Illnm  e  periculo  eripuit,  he  snatched  him  from  the  danger 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  iv.,  12). 

Dative  of  Advantage  or  Disadvantage 
{Dat'ivus  commodl  vel  incommodi). 

381.  With  many  verbs  the  dative  denotes  the  person 
or  thing  to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  something  is 
done.     Thus :  — 

Non  scholae  seil  vitae  discimus,  we  learn,  not  for  school, 
but  for  life  ;  iion  solum  nobis  dicites  esse  volumus,  sed  liberis, 
propinquis,  amicis  maximeque  rei  publicae,  not  for  our- 
selves only  do  we  wish  to  be  rich,  but  for  our  children,  rela- 
tives, friends,  and,  most  of  all,  for  the  state. 

a.  So  nubere  alinui,  marry  {lit.,  veil  one's  self  for),  vacdre 
alicui  rel,  have  leisure  for,  and  expressions  like  quid  tibi  vis  ? 
wliat  are  you  after  ?  (lit.  w  hat  do  you  want  for  yourself  ?)  ;  quid 
hnic  homini  facias  ?  what  can  you  do  with  (for)  this  fellow  ? 
(Butcf.  412,  a.) 

b.  So  also  the  dative  of  a  participle  in  expressions  defining 
a  place,  as  :  — 

Loctim,  qui  nunc  sasptus  descendentibus  inter  duds  lucos 
est,  asylum  aperit,  he  opened  as  a  place  of  refuge  the  spot 
which  you  find  hedged  in  as  you  go  down  between  the  Two 
Groves  (Liv.,   i.,  8,  5). 

Ethical  Dative  (Dativus  ethicus), 

382.  A  special  variety  of  the  dative  of  advantage  is 
the  use  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  lively  style  to  indicate 
the  person  interested,  where  the  sense  strictly  requires  no 
such  pronoun.     Thus :  — 

Utinain  ille  omnes  secum  suds  copids  eduxisset !  Tongilium 
mihi  eduxit,  would  that  he  had  taken  out  all  his  forces  with 
him  !  Ho  has  taken  (me)  Tongilius  (Cic,  Cat.,  ii.,  2,  4)  ;  at 
tibi  repent e  panels  post  diebits  venit  ad  me  Canlnius,  but  a 
few  days  later  Caninius  suddenly  comes  to  me  (Cic,  i^am.,  ix., 
2,1). 


216 


SYNTAX. 


DATIVE   WITH    VERBS,    AND   WITH   ADJECTIVES.      217 


Dative  of  Agent  {Datlvus  agentls), 

383.  With  the  gerundive  and  sum  the  dative  denotes 
the  person  who  has  a  thing  to  do.     Thus :  — 

Adhibenda  est  n5bis  diligent  la,  we  must  employ  dihgence 
(Cic.)  ;  certe  mihi  verendum  nan  erat,  7ie  quid,  Jwc  parriclda 
clvlum  iiiterfecto,  invldlae  rnlhi  in  jjosterltdtem  redundaret, 
I  certainly  did  not  have  to  fear  that  if  I  killed  this  niurderer 
of  his  countrymen,  any  flood  of  unpopularity  would  rise  up 
about  me  in  the  future  (Cic,  Cat,  i.,  12,  29)  ;  nobis,  cum 
semel  occidlt  hrevis  lux,  nox  est  perpetua  vna  dormienda,  we 
have  to  sleep  through  one  long  lasting  night,  when  once  our 
hfe's  brief  day  is  o'er  (Catull.). 

a.  To  avoid  a  possible  ambiguity,  or  to  give  the  notion  of 
agency  greater  prominence,  the  ablative  with  ah  (a)  must  be 
used  ;  as  :  — 

Aguntur  bona  c'lviiim,  qnibus  est  a  vobis  consulendum, 
citizens'  property  is  involved,  and  you  must  take  measures  for 
its  protection  ;  te  a  me  monendum  esse  putd,  I  think  I 
ought  to  remind  you. 

b.  The  dative  of  agent  is  also  sometimes  used  with  the  tenses 
compounded  with  tbe  perfect  participle.     Thus  :  — 

Haec  satis  sint  dicta  nobis,  let  that  which  I  have  said  suf- 
fice (Cic,  Tim.,  10). 

Dative  of  Possessor. 
384.  The  dative  is  used  with  sum  to  denote  the  pos- 
sessor,* —  the  thing  owned  being  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

Thus : — 

Sit  mihi  mensa  tripes,  let  me  have  a  three-legged  table 
(Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  3,  13) ;  est  igltur  homini  cum  deo  slmilltUdd, 
man  has  therefore  a  likeness  with  God  (Cic,  Legg.,  i.,  8,    25). 

a.  The  historians  sometimes  join  volenti,  cupienti,  or  invito j 
with  such  a  dative,  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  idiom  ;  as  :  — 
*  Cf .  predicate  genitive  of  possession,  357. 


Ut  quibusque  bellum  invitis  aut  cupientibus  erat,  ac- 
cording as  war  was  repugnant  or  acceptable  to  each.    ' 

Dative  of  Service. 

385.  With  many  verbs  the  dative  denotes  the  end  or 
purpose  of  an  action.     Thus  :  — 

Virtus  neque  datur  dono  nequ^  accipitur,  virtue  is  neither 
given  as  a  gift  nor  received. 

386.  The  dative  of  service  is  most  commonly  joined 
with  another  dative,  especially  a  dative  of  advantage  or 
a  dative  of  possessor  (dative  to  which  and  for  which). 
Thus : — 

Id  tibi  honori,  habetui\  that  is  counted  an  honor  to  you 
(Cic.)  ;  mihi  imiximae  est  ciirae,  it  is  a  very  great  anxiety 
to  me  (Cic) ;  spero  nobis  Juinc  coniunctlonem  voluptati /ore, 
I  hope  this  association  will  be  a  pleasure  to  us  (Cic.)  ;  cui  bono 
fuit,  whom  did  it  benefit?  (lit.,  to  wliom  was  it  (for)  a  benefit?) 
(Cic).     (Cf.  331,  1.) 

Impersonal  Use  of  Passives. 

387.  Verbs  which  take  a  dative  can  be  used  in  the 
passive  only  impersonally,  and  the  dative  is  then  retained. 
Thus :  — 

Mihi  numquam  persuaderi  potuit  animos  emori,  T  never 
could  be  persuaded  that  the  soul  perishes ;  invidetur  prae- 
stanti  Jidrent'ique  fortiinae,  prominent  and  flourishing  success 
is  envied. 

Dative  with  Adjectives. 

388.  The  dative  is  used  with  many  adjectives  to  de- 
note the  object  towards  which  the  quality  is  directed. 

389.  Such  are  especially  adjectives  meaning  useful, 
pleasant,  friendly,  fit,  like,  inclined,  ready,  easy, 
CLEAR,  EQUAL,  and  their  opposites;  also  those  meaning 


I 


218 


SYNTAX. 


DATIVE   AND   ACCUSATIVE   CASES. 


219 


NEAR,  many  compounded  with  com-,  and  adjectives  in 
-bills.     Tlius :  — 

Felix  tins,  gracious  to  your  adherents  (Verg.)  ;  drat'w  in- 
grata  Gallis,  a  speech  un pleasing  to  the  Gauls  (Caes.)  ;  nihil 
tavi  est  Lysiae  diversum  quain  Isocrates^  nothing  is  so  differ- 
ent from  Lysias  as  Isocrates  ;  patrt  similis,  like  his  father 
(Cic.)  ;  promptm  seditidn'i^  ready  for  insurrection  (Tac.)  ; 
cuivis  facile  est,  it  is  easy  for  anybody  (Ter.) ;  falsa  veris 
finitima  sunt,  the  false  is  next  door  to  the  true  (Cic.)  ;  7nors 
est  terribilis  iis,  quorum  cum  vita  omnia  exstinguuntur,  death 
is  terrible  to  those  who  lose  all  things  when  they  lose  their  life 
(Cic,  Far.,  ii.). 

390.  Instead  of  the  dative,  many  of  these  adjectives  are 
also  used  with  a  preposition  and  its  case.     Especially  :  — 

(1.)  Adjectives  meaning  useful  or  fit,  and  their  opposites, 
take  an  accusative  with  ad  when  they  mean  tiseful  for,  fit  for, 
etc.,  the  dative  being  commoner  if  they  mean  nseful  to,  etc. 
Thus  :  — 

UtiUs  agris,  beneficial  to  the  fields  (Juv.) ;  homo  ad  nullam 
rem  iitilis,  a  man  useful  for  nothing  (Cic). 

(2.)  Adjectives  implying  motion  or  tendency  more  com- 
monly take  the  accusative  with  a  preposition.     Tbns  :  — 
Fromis  ad  fidem,  readily  inclined  to  faithfulness  (Liv.). 

(3.)  Adjectives  of  feeling  often  have  an  accusative  with 
in,  erga,  or  adversus.     Thus  :  — 

Mater  acerba  in  su5s  partus,  a  mother  harsh  to  her  own 
offspring  (Ovid)  ;  gratns  erga  me,  grateful  towards  me  (Cic)  ; 
,  grdtum  adversus  te,  grateful  towards  you  (Cic). 

(4.)  Propior  and  proximiis  sometimes  take  an  accusative, 
like  the  primitive  prope.     Thus  :  — 

Quod  vitium  propius  virtutem  erat,  and  this  fault  was 
pretty  nearly  a  virtue  (Sail.)  ;  F.  Crassus  proximus  mare 
Oceanum  hiemdrat,  Publius  Crassus  had  wintered  close  by  the 
ocean  (Caes.,  B,  G.,  iii.,  7). 

Cf.  also  362. 


% 


I 


Dative  with  Other  Parts  of  Speech.  " 

391.  The  dative  is  sometimes  found  with  other  parts 
of  speech,  to  express  the  same  sort  of  relation  as  with 
verbs  or  adjectives.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)   With  adverbs  : 

Congruenter  naturae  convenienter^'?^  vlvere,  to  live  in 
harmony  and  agreement  with  nature  (Cic)  ;  proxiine  castris, 
next  the  camp  (Caes.,  B.  C,  i.,  72,  5). 

(2.)   With  a  few  (verbal)  nouns  :  — 

Obtemperatvo  legibus,  obedience  to  the  laws  (Cic,  Legg.,  I, 
15)  ;  iyividia  consuU,  envy  towards  the  consul  (Sail.). 

(3.)  With  interjections  :  — 

Vae  victls !  no  quarter  I  (lit.,  woe  to  the  vanquished)  ;  hei 
mihi  misero  !  alas !   unha})py  me ! 

(4.)  The  compound  expression  dicto  audiens,  obedient, 
takes  a  second  dative,  as  :  — 

Dict5  audientes  esse  regi  dehehant,  they  ought  to  be  obe- 
dient to  their  king. 

ACCUSATIVE  {Accusdtiviis), 
Note.     The  uses  of  the  accusative  niay  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 

Accusative  of  Direct  Object. 

(  Verbs  of  Making,  etc. 
Two  Accusatives  |      *'      "  Askiug-,  etc. 

'      "       compounded  with  Trans,  etc. 
Accusative  with  Middle  Voice. 
Cognate  Accusative. 
Adverbial  Accusative. 

Accusative  of  Specification  (Synecdochical). 
Accusative  with  Verbal  Nouns. 
Accusative  in  Exclamations. 
Subject  Accusative. 
Accusative  of  Time. 
*'  Place. 
"  with  Prepositions. 


i 


220 


SYNTAX. 


TWO   ACCUSATIVES. 


221 


Accusative  of  Direct  Ortect. 

392.  The  accusative  is  used  especially  to  denote  the 
person  or  thing  directly  affected  by  an  action.  There- 
fore only  transitive  verbs  have  an  object  in  the  accusative. 

Thus :  — 

Legatos  mlttnnt,  they  send  ambassadors  (Caes.)  ;^  animus 
movet  corpus,  the  mind  moves  the  body  (Cic.)  ;  da  veniam 
ha/ic,  grant  this  indulgence  (Ter.). 

NoTK.  Many  verbs  are  transitive  in  Latin  which  are  intransitive  in 
En«>-lish.  Indeed,  in  early  Latin  very  many  verbs  which  were  afterwards 
used  with  other  constructions  could  take  an  accusative,  the  accusative  fill- 
ing with  regard  to  the  verb  the  same  place  which  a  genitive  lilk  towards 
the  noun  it  modifies. 

393.  The  accusative  of  the  active  voice  becomes  the 
subject-nominative  of  the  passive  voice.     Thus  :  — 

Legatos  nuttunt  ;  legatl  mittuntur. 

a.  Verbs  therefore  which  admit  no  accusative  can  be  used 
in  the  passive  only  impersonally.      (Cf.  387,  and  194.) 

h.  Occasionally  the  subject  of  a  dependent  clause  is  antici- 
pated in  the  main  clause  as  the  object  of  its  verb,  though  this 
is  much  less  common  than  in  Greek.     Thus  :  — 

Meam  uxdrem  .  .  .  nescis,  qnalis  sit,  you  don't  know 
what  sort  of  a  person  my  wife  is  (Plant,  Asln..  59). 

Note.  The  anticipated  subject  is  sometimes  in  other  constructions  than 
that  of  object-accusative  ;  as  :  — 

Quidam  saepe  in  parvd  pecfniia  perspiciuntur  qii/im  sint 
leves,  it  is  often  shown  in  small  matters  of  money  what  weak 
characters  some  people  have  (Cic,  Am,,  17,  63). 

Two  Accusatives. 

394.  Certain  classes  of  verbs  take  two  accusatives. 
Thus :  — 

(1.)  Many  verbs  which  in  the  passive  voice  take  a  predi- 
cate nominative  (cf.  328,  3),  especially  verbs  meaning  to 

MAKE,  CALL,  CHOOSE,  RENDER,  ESTEEM,  RECKON.    ThuS  : 

Me  considem  fecistis,  you  have   made   me   consul  (Cic.)  ; 


I 


iram  bene  Ennius  initium  dixit  Insdniae,  Ennius  has  well 
called  anger  the  beginnin^^  of  madness  (Cic.)  :  Sulpiciuin  ac- 
cusatorem  suum  nmnerabat  7idn  competit5rem,  he  reck- 
oned Sulpicius  liis  accuser,  not  his  rival  (Cic,  Mur.,  24,  49). 

a.  One  accusative  is  the  direct  object,  the  other  a  predicate 
accusative. 

b.  Instead  of  the  predicate  accusatioe  the  same  "kindred 
constructions  "  sometimes  occur  as  for  a  predicate  nominative 
(see  331  above).     Cf.  also  the  following  :  — 

Fortuna  me,  qui  VWer fueram,  servom  fecit,  e  summ5  in- 
fimum,  fortune  has  made  me  who  was  free  a  slave,  [changing 
me]  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  (Plant.). 

(2.)  Verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and 
celare,  to  hide,  take  an  accusative  of  the  person  with 
another  accusative  of  the  thing.     Thus  :  — 

Hoc  te  vehementer  rogo,  this  I  ask  you  urgently  (Cic.)  ; 
pdsce  deds  veniam  *  ask  indulgence  of  the  gods  (Verg.) ; 
cum  legent  quis  musicam  docuerit  Epainin5ndam,  when 
they  read  who  tauglit  Epaminondas  music  (Nep.)  ;  Antigonus 
iter  omnes  celat,  Antigonus  hides  his  journey  from  all  (Nep.). 

a.  The  following  verbs  of  asking  (and  occasionally  others) 
take  an  ablative  with  ah,  de,  or  ex,  instead  of  the  accusative 
of  the  person  :  exigere,  petere,  postulare,  {ab)  ;  quaerere,  {ex  or 
de)  ;  sritdrl,  sclscitdrl.     Thus  :  — 

Fdcem  ab  Romanis  petere,  to  ask  peace  of  the  Romans 
(Caes.). 

b.  Instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  an  ablative  with  de, 
or  with  verbs  of  teaching  an  ablative  of  means  (see  407,  b),  is 
sometimes  used.     Thus  :  — 

Sic  egS  te  elsdem  de  rebus  interrogem,  I  would  thus  ques- 
tion you  on  the  same  points  (Cic.)  ;  de  itinera  hostium  sena- 
turn  edocet,  he  informs  the  senate  of  the  enemy's  march  (Sail.)  ; 
Bassus  noster  me  de  hoc  libro   celavit,  my  friend  Bassus 

Tlie  difference  in  sense  between  the  two  accusatives  here  and  in  ex- 
pressions like  filiam  tuam  mihi  uzorem  p5sc5,  I  ask  your  daug^hter  as 
wife,  should  be  observed. 


222 


SYNTAX. 


ACCUSATIVE   CASE. 


223 


kept  me  in  ignorance  about  this  book  (Cic.)  ;  allquem  fidibus 
docere,  to  teach  some  one  [to  play  on]  the  lyre  (Cic). 

6*.  In  the  passive  the  accusative  of  the  person  becomes  sub- 
ject and  the  accusative  of  the  thing  remains  ;  as  :  — 

Rogatus  est  sententiam,  he  was  asked  his  opinion. 

(3.)  Verbs  compounded  with  trans,  ad,  or  circimi 
sometimes  take  two  accusatives,  one  depending  upon  the 
verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition.     Thus  :  — 

Omnem  equitatum  pontem  transducit,  he  led  all  his  cav- 
alry across  the  bridge  (Caes.)  ;  Fetrelus  ius  iurandum  adigit 
Afranium,  Petreius  bound  Afranins  by  an  oath  (Caes.)  ;  R5s- 
cillum  Fompeius  omnia  sva  praesidia  circumduxit,  Pom- 
pey  took  Koscillus  all  around  his  garrisons  (Caes.). 

Accusative  with  Middle  Voice. 

395.  A  few  verbs,  seemingly  deponent  or  passive  but 
really  remnants  of  a  middle  voice  (see  193,  «),  take  an 
accusative  of  direct  object.     Thus :  — 

Priamus  inutile  ferrum  cingitur,  Priam  girds  on  his  un- 
availing sword  (Verg.)  ;  virldl  membra  sub  arhuto  stratus, 
stretcliing  his  limbs  under  a  green  arbutus  tree  (Hor.,  Odes,  i.,  1). 

a.  This  construction  is  especially  common  with  certain  perfect 
participles,  as  in  the  second  example. 

CoGXATE  Accusative. 

396,  Some  verbs  not  otherwise  transitive  take,  as  in 
English,  an  accusative  with  a  meaning  kindred  to  their 
own  (Cognate  Accusative).     Thus  :  — 

Vitam  iucundam  vivere,  to  live  a  merry  life  (Plant.)  ;  iu- 
ravi  verlsslmum  ius  iurandum.  I  have  sworn  an  inviolable 
oath  (Cic). 

a.  The  cognate  accusative  usually  has  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  it,  as  in  the  examples. 

h.  The  degree  in  which  the  meanings  of  .the  verb  and  the  ac- 
cusative are  kindred  varies  a  good  deal.     In  the  poets  the  con- 


struction  became  pretty  widely  expanded.     Cf.  the  following  ex- 
amj)les  :  — 

Coire  soeietatem,  to  form  an  alliance  (Cic,  Rose,  Am.,  7,  20)  ; 
vincere  indicium*  to  win  a  suit ;  saltdre  Cyclopa,  to  dance  the 
Cyclops  (Hor.,  Sat.,  l,  5,  63)  ;  bacchandliu  vwere,  to  live  a 
riotous  life  (luv.,  ii.,  3). 

Adverbial  Accusative. 

397.  The  adverbial  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  in 
what  respect  or  to  what  degree  an  action  is  exerted,  is 
really  a  variety  of  cognate  accusative.     Thus  :  — 

Nihil  labord,  I  have  no  difficulty ;  illud  valde  tibi  adseiitim^ 
on  that  point  I  agree  with  you  emphatically  (Cic.)  ;  Suebl 
maxim  am  partem  lacte  atque  pecore  vwunt,  the  Suebi  Hve 
for  the  most  part  on  milk  and  meat. 

Accusative  of  Specification. 

398.  The  accusative  is  sometimes  used  to  specify  the 
part  to  which  the  meaning  of  a  verb  or  an  adjective  ap- 
plies.    Thus :  — 

Equus  tremit  artus,  the  horse  trembles  in  his  limbs  (Verg.)  ; 
clarl  genus,  illustrious  in  birth  (Tac.)  ;  animum  iricensus, 
fired  in  his  soul  (Liv.). 

a.  This  construction  is  also  called  the  syxecdochical  accu- 
sative. It  is  rare  except  in  the  poets,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to 
the  parts  of  the  body.  The  use  treated  under  395  is  often 
wi'ongly  regarded  as  accusative  of  specification. 

b.  Here  belongs  perhaps  the  idiomatic  use  of  the  accusative 
in  such  expressions  as  :  — 

Sets  me  aliquid  id  genus  soUtum  scribere,  you  know  I  am 
m  the  habit  of  writing  something  of  the  sort;  id  aetatis,  of  or 
at  that  age ;  id  temporis,  at  that  time. 

Accusative  wmi  Verbal  Nouns,  etc. 
399.     Some    verbal    nouns    and  verbal   adjectives   in 

*  This  is  a  direct  imitation  of  the  Greek. 


224 


SYNTAX. 


-bundus  take  an  accusative,  like  tlie  transitive  verbs  from 
which  tliey  are  derived.     Thus :  — 

Quid  tlbi  hue  receptio  ad  te  est  meum  virvun,  wherefore 
do  you  receive  my  husband  hither  to  you?  (Plaut.)  ;  Ban?id 
vitabundus  castra  hostium  consulesy?/^,  Hanno  shunning 
the  consuls  and  the  camp  of  the  enemy  (Liv.). 

a.  This  use  is  chiefly  confined  to  colloquial  and  late  Latin. 

Accusative  in  Exclamations. 
400.  In  exclamations  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  marks 
the  object  of  the  feeling  is  put  in  the  accusative,  with  or 
without  an  interjection.     Tims : 

Hominem  gravem  et  civem  egregium  !  a  solid  man  and 
admirable  citizen  (Cic.)  ;  miseram  me  (Ter.)  ;  x^ro  deum  homi- 
numque  fidem,  by  the  honor  of  gods  and  men  (Cic.)  ;  en 
quattuor  aras,  lo  four  altars  !   (Verg.). 

Subject  Accusative. 

^  401.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusa- 
tive.    Thus : — 

Moleste  Pompeium  id  ferre  cdnstUhat,  it  was  believed  that 
Pompey  took  that  to  heart  (Cic.) ;  campos  inbet  ease  pateiites, 
orders  that  the  fields  be  open  (Verg.). 

For  the  subject  of  the  Historical  Infinitive  see  530,  a. 

For  the  accusative  with  propihr  and  proximus,  see  390,  4. 

For  the  accusative  with  prepositions,  see  429,  431. 

For  the  accusative  in  constructions  of  Place  and  Time,  see  423,  425  ff. 

VOCATIVE  (Vocdtlvus). 

402.  The  vocative  is  used  only  to  address  a  person 
or  thing.     Thus  :  — 

Vlncere  sets,  Hannibal,  victoria  utl  nescJs,  you  know  how 
to  conquer,  Hannibal,  but  you  know  not  how  to  make  use  of 
victory  ;  QuintUi  Vare,  legloiies  redde,  Qiiintilius  Varus,  give 
back  [my]  legions ;  o  fortunate  adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtu- 


VOCATIVE   AND   ABLATIVE   CASES. 


225 


tis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris  !  O  happy  youth,  who  hast 
found  a  herald  of  thy  valor  in  Homer!   (Cic,  Arch,,  10,  24). 

a.  The  interjection  o  !  is  used  in  prose  only  for  deeply  emo- 
tional address,  as  in  the  last  example. 

h.  Other  interjections  are  sometimes  used,  especially  jsro  /  in 
(ailing  upon  the  gods.     Thus  :  — 

Pro  sanete  luppiter  I  O  holy  Jupiter  ! 

c.  A  predicate  word  is  sometimes  in  the  Augustan  poets  made 
to  agree  with  a  vocative  instead  of  the  nominative.     Thus ;  — 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris,  exspectate  vents,  from  what  shores. 
Hector,  dost  thou,  long  looked  for,  come?  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  282). 

Note.  Properly  speaking-,  the  vocative  is  hardly  a  case  at  all.  The 
snuilarity  of  its  function  with  that  of  the  nominative,  both  serving  to  name 
an  object,  accounts  for  the  identity  of  form  which,  except  in  the  singular 
of  masculine  and  feminine  O-  stems  with  nominatives  in  -us,  is  everywhere 
sliowu  by  the  two  cases.     (See  90,  3.) 

ABLATIVE  {Ahlatwus). 

403.  ^  The  ablative  may  be  called  the  adverbial  case, 
that  is,  it  expresses  various  modifications  of  the  predicate 
^\hich  in  English  are  expressed  by  adverbs  or  by  preposi- 
tional phrases.*  It  is  therefore  used  chiefly  with  verbs 
and  adjectives. 

Note.  To  a  still  jrreater  deg^ree  than  with  the  other  oblique  cases  is  it 
difficult  to  trace  any  single  principle  in  the  various  uses  of  the  ablative. 
It  has  been  a  common  theory  that  the  original  use  was  to  denote  separa- 
tion, but  the  better  opinion  is  that  such  is  not  the  case.  In  the  following 
arrangement  each  of  the  first  two  groups  contains  uses  which  seem  pretty 
nearly  allied  to  each  other,  though  it  will  be  observed  that  the  last 
member  of  the  first  group  (ablative  of  plenty)  might  just  as  well  be 
reckoned  in  the  second  group.  The  special  uses  comprising  group  3  can 
all  be  traced  to  individual  uses  under  groups  1  and  2.  The  last  group 
contains  those  uses  in  which  it  is  most  difficult  to  trace  any  bond  of  con- 
nection. 

*  The  ablative  had  absorbed  into  itiielf  the  uses  of  the  old  instrumental 
and  most  of  those  of  the  locative.  We  have  seen  (90,  note)  that  some 
of  its  forms  are  derived  from  these  cases.  The  other  uses  of  the  loca- 
tive passed  over  to  the  genitive  or  the  dative. 


22G 


SYNTAX. 


Uses  of  the  Ablative. 

1.  Ablative  of  Cause. 

Source. 

Agent. 

Means  or  Instrument. 

Way  by  which. 

Price. 

Plenty. 

Manner  or  Accompaniment. 

Characteristic  or  Quality. 

2.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

Separation. 

Want 

Degree  of  Difference. 

With  Comparatives. 

r  Opus  and  Usus, 
Dlgnusj  etc. 

3.  Ablative  in  certain  special  expressions  -^  Utor,  Fruor,  etc. 

NitOTj  etc. 


Adsuescoj  etc. 


4.  Ablative  Absolute. 
of  Time. 
*'  Place, 
with  Prepositions. 


Ablative  of  Cause  {Ahlat'nms  causae). 
404.  The  ablative  indicates  the  CAUSE  of  a  thing  in 
the  widest  sense.     It  thus  indicates  — 

(1.)  An  external  cause  ;  as :  — 

Hastes  frument'i  inopia  coyiloqidum  petlveninf,  the  enemy 
asked  for  a  conference,  on  account  of  their  want  of  grain. 

(2.)  An  internal  cause  ;  as  :  — 

Noll  putare  pigritia  rrie  id  facer e,  do  not  think  that  I  do 
so  from  laziness. 

(3.)  That  in  consequence  of  which  or  in  accordance 
with  which  something  takes  place  ;  as  :  — 

Diversis  du5bus  vitiis,  avaritia  et  luxuria,  ctvitds  Ed- 
mdna  lahorabat^  the  Roman  state  was  suffering  from  two  oppo- 
site defects,  greed  and  extravagance ;  amid  amlcdrum  dolore 


ABLATIVE   OF   CAUSE,   AND   OF   SOURCE. 


227 


maerent,  friends  are  saddened  by  each  other's  pain ;  instituto 
suo  Caesar  capias  suds  eduxit,  Caesar  led  out  his  forces  in 
accordance  with  his  custom  ;  tarita  cdritds  patriae  est,  ut  earn 
nan  sensu  nostro  sed  salute  ipsius  metiumur,  so  great  is 
our  love  of  country  that  we  measure  it  not  by  our  feeling,  but  by 
her  own  welfare  (Cic,  TUsc,  i.,  37)  ;  milites  fessl  labore, 
dux  anxius  curls,  the  soldiers  worn  out  with  hardship,  the  gen- 
eral troubled  with  his  cares. 

a.  Cause  is  also  sometimes  expressed  by  prepositions  ;  as  ; 

Leglbus  propter  metum  pdret,  he  obeys  the  laws  because 

of  fear  ;  ne  ob  earn  rem  ipsos  despiceret,  [they  begged]  him 

not  to  despise  them  on  tliat  account. 

h.  ITie  ablatives  causa  and  gratia  (sometimes  also  ergo)  are 
used  with  a  genitive  or  a  possessive  pronoun  to  denote  ''  for  the 
sake  of ;  "  as  :  — 

Et  mea  et  rei  publicae  causa,  for  my  sake  and  that  of  the 
state. 

c.  Words  of  emotion,  etc.,  also  sometimes  take  the  ablative 
with  </e,  ex,  d,  in  ;  as  :  — 

Laetari  victdria  (or  in  victoria),  to  be  glad  at  one*s  vic- 
tory; glaririri  de  (or  in)  suis  divitiis,  to  boast  of  one's 
wealth  ;  lahardre  ex  aere  alieno,  ab  re  frumentaria,  to 
suffer  under  debt,  from  want  of  provisions. 

Ablative  of  Source. 

405.  The  ablative  is  used,  chiefly  with  perfect  parti- 
ciples, to  denote  birth  or  origin.     Thus  :  — 

Tantald  pragndtus,  descended  from  Tantalus  ;  eddem  patre 
ndtus,  born  of  the  same  father. 

a.  With  the  name  of  the  mother  and  with  pronouns  the  pre- 
position ex  is  generally  used,  except  in  the  poets  ;  with  distant 
ancestors  the  preposition  ab.     Thus  :  — 

Ex  regis  filia  natus,  born  of  the  king's  daughter ;  hestide 
qmque  ex  se  natos  amant.  even  the  brutes  love  their  offspring ; 
Belgae  orti  sunt  ab  Germanis,  the  Belgians  are  descended 
from  the  Germans. 


228 


SYNTAX. 


b.  Loco,  genere.famiUa,  generally  take  no  preposition  ;  as  :  — 
Summo  loco  natus,  born  in  the  highest  station. 

For  the  construction  with  places,  see  425,  426. 

c.  With  constdre  and  like  words  the  ablative  is  used  alone  to 
denote   material.     Thus  :  — 

Aniin5  constamus  et  corpore,  we  consist  of  mind  and  bo<ly 
(cf.  Cic,  i'm.,  iv.,  8,  19). 

Note.     Otherwise  a  preposition  is  used,  except  sometimes  in  verse. 

Ablative  of  Agent  {Abldtlvus  agentis). 

406.  The  ablative  of  persons  or  personified  things  is 
used  with  the  preposition  d,  ab,  to  denote  the  agent. 
Thus :  — 

A  Cl5di6  d~iUgoi%  I  am  loved  by  Clodius ;  lauddtur  ab  his 
eiilpdtur  ab  illis,  by  the  one  set  he  is  praised,  by  the  other 
blamed  (Hor.). 

So,  perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  the  enemy. 

For  Dative  of  Agent,  see  383. 

Ablative  of  Means  {Abldtwus  Instrumentl). 
407.  The  ablative  of  things  is  used  without  a  preposi- 
tion to  denote  the  means  or  instrument  of  an  action. 

Thus  :  — 

Cornibus  tauri,  apri  dentibus,  morsu  hones,  allae  bestlae 
fuga  se,  allae  occultati5ne  tutantur,  bulls  protect  themselves 
by  their  horns,  boars  by  their  tusks,  lions  by  biting,  some  beasts 
by  running  away,  others  by  hiding  ;  Britannl  inter wres  lacte 
et  came  vivebant  peUibus??^^  erant  vestttl,  the  Britons  of 
the  interior  used  to  live  on  milk  and  meat,  and  had  skins  for 
clothing. 

a.  A  person  regarded  as  a  Tneans  is  denoted  by^er  with  the 

accusative  ;  as  :  — 

Mult'i  per  Caesarem  aut  honores  aut  divitids  ceperunt, 
many  received  office  or  wealth  at  Caesar's  hands. 

b.  Various  verbs  which  in  English  are  used  transitively  are  in 
.  Latin  construed  with  an   ablative  of   means.     Thus  especially 


ABLATIVE   OF   AGENT,    OF   MEANS,  AND   OF   PRICE.     229 

words  meaning  "to  play"   (either  games  or  music),  and  some- 
times verbs  of  teaching  (see  also  394,  2,  b).     Thus  :  — 

Luderepila,  to  play  tennis ;  *  canere  t'lbils,  to  play  the  flute ; 
artlbus  histniere,  to  teach  the  arts  ;  iTtterls  imbuere,  to  instil 
learning. 

c.  The  ablative  of  means  may  be  used  to  denote  the  road  or 
path  taken  (sometimes  called  ablative  of  the  way  by  which). 
Thus  :  — 

Omnibus  viis  ndtls  aemit'isque  esseddrids  ex  silvis  emittehat, 
he  was  sending  out  warriors  in  chariots  from  the  woods  by  all 
the  known  roads  and  paths  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  v.,  19). 

Ablative  of  Price  {Abldtlvus  pretU). 
408.  The  PRICE  t  or  value  of  a  thing  is  expressed  by 
the   ablative,  chiefly    when    it    is    a    definite    quantity. 
Thus  ;  — 

Cum  te  trecentis  talentis  regl  Cotto  verulldlsses,  when  you 
had  sold  yourself  to  king  Cottus  for  three  hundred  talents 
(Cic.)  ;  constltlt  quadringentis  milibus,  it  cost  four  hun- 
dred thousand  [sesterces]  (Varr.)  ;  levi  momento  aestimdre, 
to  esteem  it  of  little  consequence  (Caes.). 
For  the  genitive  of  indefinite  price,  see  371,  372. 

a.  Mdgnd,  pemidg?id,  parvo,  mlnlnw,  pluriino,  nihild,  though 
denoting  indefinite  value,  are  used  as  ablatives  of  price. 

b.  Mutdre  and  its  compounds  take  either  the  accusative  of  the 
thing  given  with  the  ablative  of  the  thing  received  in  exchange,  or 
vice  versa,  but  the  context  always  prevents  ambiguity.    Thus  : 

Chdoniavi  glandem  plngul  mutavit  arista,  changed  the 
Chaonmn  acorn  for  rich  grain  (Verg.)  ;  cur  valle  permutem 
SabUa  divitias  operdswres,  why  should  I  exchange  my  Sabine 
vale  for  more  burdensome  riches  ?  (Hor.,  Odes,  iii.,  1,  47). 

Sometimes  cum  is  used  with  the  ablative  ;  as  : 

Mortem  cum  vita  commutdre,  to  exchange  life  for  death 
(Sulp.,  ad  Cic). 

*  We  can  also  say,  of  course,  in  English,  "  to  play  at  tennis,"  "to  play 
on  the  flute,"  etc. 

t  That  is.  the  means  by  which  something  is  bought  or  sold. 


230 


SYNTAX. 


Ablative  of  Plenty  {Ahlatlvtis  copiae), 
409.  The   ablative   (of    means)   is   used    with    verbs 
and  adjectives  which  denote  fullness   or  abundance. 

Thus :  — 

[  Filial  abundat  porco,  haedo,  agno,  gallina,  lacte.  ca- 
seo,  melle,  the  farmhouse  is  plentifully  provided  with  ham,  veni- 
son, lamb,  jK)ultry,  milk,  cheese,  and  honey  (Cic,  Sen.,  16,  56)  ; 
domus  plena  servis,  a  house  full  of  slaves  (luv.). 

a.  Somethnes,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  such  words  take  a  genitive 
in  the  poets  ;  compleo,  impleo,  and  plemis,  also  in  prose  ;  as  :  — 

Ollain  denariorum  implere,  to  fill  a  jar  with  pennies  (Cic). 
(Cf.  359  and  360.) 

Ablative  of  Maxxer  {Ablations  modi). 

410.  (1.)  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  preposition 
cum  to  denote  MANNER  or  accompaniment.     Thus  :  — 

Cum  voluptate  aliquem  audire,  to  listen  to  one  with 
pleasure  ;  Verves  Lampsacum  venit  cum  magna  calamitate 
c'iultatis,  Verres  came  to  Lampsacus  with  great  disaster  to  the 
city  (Cic). 

(2.)  The  preposition  is  often  omitted  when  there  is  an 
adjective  agreeing  with  the  ablative,  and  with  a  few  par- 
ticular words,  —  mocZo,  ratione,  more,  r'ltu,  sllentid,  iure, 
iniurld,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Nudis  pedibus  incedere,  to  go  barefoot ;  summa  aequi- 
tate  res  cdristltnit,  he  arranged  affairs  with  the  greatest  fair- 
ness ;  latronum  ritu  clvere,  to  live  after  the  fashion  of  brigands  ; 
silentio  praeter'ire  allquid,  to  pass  by  something  in  silence. 

Ablative  of  Characteristic  (Ablatlvus  qmiUtatis). 

411.  The  ablative  is  used,  with  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  it  or  a  genitive  depending  on  it,  to  denote  a  charac- 
teristic or  QUALITY.      Thus  I 

AgesUaus  statura  fuit  himiili  et  corpore  exiguo,  Agesi- 


ablative  case. 


231 


laus  was  of  short  stature  and  small  frame  ;  homo  maxima 
barba,  a  man  with  very  long  beard  ;  jiwmen  difflcili  transitu 
ripis^z/e  praeruptis,  a  river  of  difficult  passage  and  steep 
banks ;  cldvus  ferreus  digit!  pollicis  crassitiidine,  an  iron 
nail  of  the  thickness  of  the  thumb. 

a.  Physical  characteristics  are  always  expressed  thus  by  the 
ablative  ;  other  qualities  may  also  be  expressed  by  a  genitive  of 
characteristic.     (See  356,  and  358,  6.) 

Ablative  of  Specification  (Abldtwus  Umitatidnis). 

412.  The  ablative  is  used  with  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
verbs  to  denote  IN  what  respect  a  thing  is  true. 
Thus : — 

Pietate  fillus,  consiliis  parens,  in  affection  a  son,  in 
counsel  a  parent. 

lure  peritusj  skilled  in  law  ;  pedibus  aeger,  lame  in  his  feet. 

Contremiscd  tota  mente  et  omnibus  artubus,  I  am  agi- 
tated in  my  whole  mind  and  all  my  limbs  (Cic.)  ;  mea  quidem 
sententia*  paci  semjier  est  cojisulendum,  in  my  opinion  at 
least  the  interests  of  peace  are  always  to  be  looked  out  for. 

a.  Here  belongs  the  ablative  in  the  expressions  quid  hoc 
IcLominQ  facias,  what  canyon  do  with  such  a  man  ?  quid  illo 
f'let  ?  what  will  be  done  with  him  ?  quid  tefuturu7n  est?  what 
is  going  to  become  of  you  ?  etc. 

For  the  rare  dative  with  f acid  in  this  sense,  see  381,  a. 

Note,  The  tendency  to  confuse  the  ablative  of  characteristic  and  the 
ablative  of  specijication  can  be  avoided  by  remembering  that  with  the  first 
the  adjective  agrees  with  the  ablative,  and  with  the  second  it  agrees  with 
the  noun  qualijied.     Thus :  — 

i/ow?o  aegris  pedibus  (Characteristic). 
Homo  Sieger  pedibus  (Specification). 

Ablatrt:  of  Separation  {Ablatlvus  separationis). 

413.  Separation  or  privation  is  denoted,  with  vari- 
ous verbs,  by  the  ablative.     With  persons  a  preposition 

*  Tliis  case  is  sometimes  regarded  as  belonging  under  404,  3. 


232 


SYNTAX. 


(a6,  (7e,  ea*)  is  always  used ;  with  things  the  preposition  is 
sometimes  used,  sometimes  omitted.     Thus  :  — 

Qulntum  Varium  pellere  possessi5nibus  conahis  est,  he 
tried  to  drive  Qiiintus  Varius  from  his  possessions  (Cic.)  ;  tune 
earn  philosophiam  seqiiere,  quae  spollat  nos  iudici5,  pr'ivat 
adprobatione,  (yrbat  sensibus  ?  do  you  follow  a  pliilosophy 
which  robs  us  of  the  ability  to  pass  judgment,  deprives  us  of  the 
power  to  approve,  and  takes  away  the  use  of  the  senses  ?j;Cic.)  ; 
hoc  me  I'lbera  metu,  free  me  from  this  fear  (Ter.)  ;  tu,  Ir^h 
piter,  hum  a  tuis  aris  arcebis.  thou,  Jupiter,  wilt  keep  this 
[scoundrel]  from  thy  altars  (Cic.) ;  arcem  ab  incendio  nbera- 
vit,  he  freed  the  citadel  from  fire  (Cic.)  ;  se  ab  Etruscis  ^•^- 
cernere,  to  separate  one's  self  from  the  Etruscans  (Liv.). 

For  the  dative  with  words  of  taking  away  from,  see  380. 

AbLxVTive  of  Want  {Abldt'iuus  uioplae). 

AlA.  So  words  and  adjectives  denoting  need,  etc.,  take 
the  ablative.     Thus  :  — 

Virum  qui  pecunia  egeat,  a  man  who  needs  money  (Cic.) ; 
carere  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fault  (Cic.)  ;  Tuea  adulesrent'ia 
indiget  illorum  bona  existimatione,  my  youthf  ulness  needs 
their  good  opinion  (Cic.)  ;  inops  verbis,  poor  in  words  (Cic.)  ; 
orba  fratribus,  bereft  of  her  brothers  (Ovid). 

a.  Eged  and  indlged  often  take  the  genitive  ;  as  :  — 

Eged  consilu  I  need  advice ;  non  tarn  artis  indigent  qnam 
laboris,  they  do  not  lack  skiU  so  much  as  they  lack  industry 
(Cic.) 

b.  Other  words  of  the  kind  are,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  often  used 
with  the  genitive  in  the  poets  ;  as  :  — 

Abstlneto  Irdrum,  thou  shalt  refrain  from  wrath  (Hor.)  ; 
cum  famulls  opermn  solutis,  with  the  slaves  released  from 
their  tasks  (Hor.,  Odes,  iii.,  17). 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  {Abldfivus  meiisurae). 
416.  Degree  of  difference  is  expressed  by  the  ab- 
lative.    Thus : — 


ablative  case. 


233 


Hibernia  dimidio  yninor,  quam  Britannia^  Ireland  is  smaller 
by  half  than  Britain  ;  quam  molestum  est  uno  digito  plus 
habere,  how  irksome  it  w^ould  be  to  have  one  linger  more  \_i.  e., 
than  we  have]  (Cic.)  ;  multo  ante  lucls  adventum,  long  before 
the  coming  of  the  day  (Sail.)  ;  quo  difficilius,  hoc  praeclor 
rius,  the  more  difficult,  the  more  glorious. 

a.  An  accusative  of  specification  is  sometimes  used  instead  of 
the  ablative  of  measure  ;  as  :  — 

Aliquantum  est  ad  rem  avid  lor,  he  is  somewhat  more  eager 
for  the  thing  (Ter.). 

Note.   The  ablatives  of  separation,  of  want,  and  of  degree  of  difference, 
are  varieties  of  the  ablative  of  specification. 


Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

416.  The  comparative  degree,  when  quam  is  omitted, 
is  followed  by  the  ablative.     Thus  :  — 

Nihil  est  virtiite  f5rinosius,  nothing  is  more  beautiful  than 
virtue  (Cic.) ;  quis  C.  Laelio  comior,  who  more  courteous 
than  Gains  Laelius?  (Cic.) 

a.  Quam  has  to  be  used  if  the  second  term  of  the  comparison 
is  not  nominative  (or  vocative)  or  accusative  ;  as  :  — 

Adveiitus  hostium  fuit  agris  quam  urbi  terribilior,  the 
aiTival  of  the  enemy  was  more  dreadful  for  the  country  than 
for  the  city  (Liv.). 

Quam,  is  also  frequently  used  when  the  second  term  of  the 
comparison  is  in  one  of  the  cases  named.     Thus  :  — 

Melior  tvLtiovque  est  certa  pax  quam  sperata  victoria, 
certain  peace  is  better  and  safer  than  victory  hoped  for  (Liv.). 

b.  The  words  oplnwne,  spe,  exspectdtione,  fide,  dictd,  solito, 
aequo,  credibill,  necessdrio,  vera,  iusto,  are  used  after  compar- 
atives to  supply  the  place  of  a  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Opinione  celerius  ventUrus  esse  dlcitur,  he  is  said  to  be 
likely  to  come  sooner  than  one  expects  (Caes.)  ;  iniurids  gravius 
aequo  habere,  to  take  injuries  more  to  heart  than  is  right  and 
fair  (Sail.). 


234 


SYNTAX. 


c.  Plus,  minus,  ampllus,  and  longius,  with  or  without  quam, 
are  used  with  words  of  number  or  measure  without  affecting 
their  construction.     Thus  :  — 

Non  plus  quam  quattuor  milia  effUgerunU  not  more  than 
four  thousand  escaped  (Liv.)  ;  minus  duo  milia  hominum  ex 
tanto  exercitu  effuyerunt,  out  of  so  large  an  army,  less  than 
two  thousand  men  escaped  (Liv.)  ;  miUtes  Rornunl  saepe  plus 
dimidiati  mensis  ciharla  ferebant,  the  Roman  soldiers  used 
often  to  carry  witli  them  provisions  for  more  than  half  a  month 

(Cic). 

d.  Alius  is  in  verse   sometimes   construed  with   the  ablative 

like  a  comparative  ;  as  :  — 

Neve  putes  alium  sapiente  bono^'we  bedtum,  nor  think 
any  one  other  than  a  wise  and  good  man  happy  (Hor.). 

e.  Inferior  usually  takes  quam,  but  is  occasionally  followed 
by  a  dative  ;  as  :  — 

Vir  nidia  arte  cuiquam  inferior,  a  man  inferior  to  none  in 
any  kind  of  craft  (Sail.). 

Note.  Tlie  foregoing  uses  of  the  ablative  will  sometimes  be  found  to 
shade  into  each  other  so  subtly  that  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  assign  a 
given  instance  to  a  given  class.  This  is  due  to  the  necessity  of  makmg  a 
classification  for  foreigners  of  things  which  a  native  has  only  to/ec/. 

Ablative  in  Certain  Special  Expressions. 

Note.  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  following  sets  of  words  '*  idiomati- 
cally," -  that  is,  the  reason  for  the  ablative  is  not  immediately  evident, 
and  English  usage  leads  one  to  expect  a  dilferent  case. 

Opus  and  Osos- 

417.  Opus  and  usus,  meaning  need,*  take  the  abla- 
tive.    Tbus :  — 

Auctoritate  tua  ndhls  opus  est,  we  need  your  influence 
(Cic.)  ;  nunc  animis  opus,  nunc  pectore  firmo,  now  there  is 
need  of  courage  and  a  steadfast  heart  (Verg.)  ;  naves,  quibus 
consnll  usus  lion  esset,  ships  for  which  the  consul  had  no  occa- 
sion (Liv.)  ;  matiirata  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  haste  (Liv.). 

*  The  ablative  here  is  an  ablative  of  specification,  showing  the  respect  in 
which  the  need  is  felt. 


ABLATIVE   IN   SPECIAL   EXPRESSIONS. 


235 


a.  The  person  or  thing  who  has  the  need  is  expressed  by  the 
dative,  as  in  the  above  examples.  The  thing  needed,  besides 
being  expressed  by  the  ablative,  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the 
nominative  as  subject  (especially  if  a  neuter  pronoun),  or  rarely 
by  the  genitive  ;  as  :  — 

Quod  ?idn  opus  est,  asse  cdrum  est,  what  is  not  necessary  is 
dear  at  a  cent  (Cic,  de  Se7i.) ;  argenti  opus  fuit,  there  was 
need  of  silver  (Liv.). 

An  infinitive  clause  may  also  be  used  as  subject ;  as  :  — 

Quid  opus  est  tam  valde  adfirmare,  what  need  of  such 
strong  assertion  ? 

Dignus,  Indignns,  Contentus,  Fretus. 

418.  D'Kjnus,  ind'ujnus,  contentus,  amd  fretus  *  tske 
the  ablative.     Thus :  — 

Dlfpius  laude,  worthy  of  praise  ;  vox  popuU  maiestate  in- 
digna,  a  speech  unworthy  tlie  dignity  of  the  people  (Caes.)  ; 
bestiae  eo  contentae  non  quaerunt  amplius,  the  brutes,  con- 
tent with  that,  seek  nothing  further  (Cic.)  ;  plertque  ingenio 
freti,  most  of  them  trusting  to  their  ingenuity  (Cic). 

a.  D'lgnus  and  indlgnus  sometimes  take  a  genitive,  and  fre- 
tus  in  Livy  takes  a  dative  ;   as  :  — 

Suscipe  cogitdtidnem  dignissimam  tuae  virtiitis,  adopt 
a  plan  which  is  most  worthy  your  own  merits  ;  fortunaefretus, 
trusting  to  fortune. 

For  dignuSy  indignus,  with  the  subjunctive,  see  482,  2. 

Utor,  Fruor,  Fnngor,  Potior,  Vescor. 

419.  Utor^  fruor,  Jungor, potior,  and  vescor,j^  and  some 
of  their  compounds,  take  the  ablative.     Thus :  — 

Mulii  deorum  beneficio  perverse  iituntur,  many  people 
use  the  blessings  of  the  gods  wrongly  (Cic,  N.  D.,  iii.,  28,  70)  ; 
frui  voluptdtCs  to  enjoy  pleasure  (Cic.)  ;  fungitur  officio,  he 

*  The  ablative  with  dignus  and  indignus  is  also  an  ablative  of  specifi- 
cation ;   with  contentus  a.iid  Jretus  ratlieran  ablative  of  cause. 

t  The  ablative  here  is  really  an  ablative  of  means.  Thus,  frui  vofup' 
tate  ^  to  get  enjoyment  by  means  of  pleasure. 


236 


SYNTAX. 


performs  the  duty  (Cic.)  ;  oppido  potitl  sunt,  they  got  posses- 
sion  of  the  town  (Liv.)  ;  vescltur  aura,  feeds  on  air  (\erg.)  ; 
lerjihus  abUtl  to  misuse  the  laws  (Cic.)  ;  defuncti  imperio 
regis,  having  fulfilled  the  king  s  command  (Liv.,  i.,  4,  5). 

a.  In   early   Latin    these  verbs    occur  with   the    accusative. 

Thus :  — 

Uteris,  ut  voles,  operam  meam,  you  will  use  my  services  as 
you  please  (PL,  Foen.,  v.,  2,  128) ;  7nunus  fungatur  swum,  let 
him  perform  his  duty  (PL,  Trln.,  354). 

Note  In  classical  Latin  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  gerundive,  not  the 
gerund,  construction  (see  550).  Therefore,  ad  urbem  potiundam  not 
ad  urbe  potiundum,  for  gettinj,^  possession  of  the  city;  voluptatis 
fruendae  causd,  not  voluptate  fruendi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  enjov.ng 
pleasure. 

b.  Putior  also  occurs  with  the  genitive ;  as  :  — 
S-i  exploratum  tihl  sit  posse  fe  iUius  regni  potiri,  if  you 
are  satisfied  that  you  can  get  possession  of  that  kingaoiu  (Cic, 

Fam.,  i.,  7,  5). 

Nitor.  Innitor,  TiM,  Confido. 

420.  Nitor,  inmtorjldd,  and  cdnfido,*  take  the  ab- 
lative.    Thus  :  — 

Baculo  nltl,  to  lean  on  a  staff  ;  nltl  auctoritate,  to  depend 
on  (some  one's)  influence  ;  hasta  inmxus,  leaning  on  his  spear; 
flderecursu,  to  trust  to  running;  natura  loci  confidebant, 
they  had  confidence  in  their  natural  position. 

a.  Fido  and  confido  also  sometimes  Uke  a  dative  (see 
376),  as  dlffldo  always  does. 

Adanesco,  AdsueladO,  Conauesco,  ImiiMOO. 
421.  Adsuesco,  adsuefacio.  consuesco,  msuesco*  some- 
times take  the  ablative.!     Thus  :  — 

Aves  sanguine  et  praeda  adsuetae,  birds  accustomed  to  the 
blood  of  prey  (Hor.)  ;  nullo  officio  aut  disciplina  adsuefao- 
tus,  accustomed  to  no  [restraint  of]  duty  or  trainmg  (Caes.)  ; 

*  The  ablative  ^.ith  the  two  sets  of  verbs  treated  in  420  and  421  is 
an  ablative  of  means.     Thus,  baculo  niti  =  to  support  one's  self  by  means 

of  a  staff.  J     -1.1,      J  *•  o 

T  In  Livy  and  the  later  writers  these  verbs  are  also  used  with  a  dative. 


ABLATIVE   ABSOLUTE. 


237 


ne  gravissimo  dol5re  tlnwre  consuescerem,  in  order  not  to 
become  accustomed  to  most  bitter  pain  through  fear  (Plin.). 

a,  Acquiescd,  repose  in,  rejoice  in,  takes  most  commonly  m 
with  an  ablative,  but  (especially  in  the  historians  and  later 
writers)  also  a  simple  ablative  or  dative  ;  as  — 

Qui  iam  aetate  provectl,  in  nostris  libris  acquiescunt, 
those  who  are  now  advanced  in  years  find  rest  in  my  books 
(Cic.)  ;  qui  rmlxlme  P.  Clodt  morte  acquiernnt,  who  took 
the  greatest  satisfaction  in  the  death  of  Publius  Clodius  (Cic.)  ; 
cui  velut  oraculo  acquiescebat,  to  whom  he  yielded  assent 
as  to  an  oracle  (Suet.,  VlteL,  14). 

Ablative  Absolute  {Ahlativus  ahsolutus). 

422.  A  noun  and  a  participle  are  put  in  the  ablative, 
not  grammatically  dependent  upon  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence, to  denote  the  time,  reason,  or  circumstances  of 
an  action.     Thus  :  — 

Pythagoras  Tarquinio  regnante  in  Italiam,  venit,  Pytlia- 
goras  came  to  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  (Cic.)  ;  hac  ora-  » 
tione  habita,  concilium  dJmlsit,  when  this  speech  had  been  de- 
livered, he  dismissed  the  assembly  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  33)  ;  virttite 
excepta,  nihil  amlritia  praestdbilius  pntetis,  regard  nothing, 
with  the  exception  of  virtue,  as  of  more  value  than  friendship  - 
(Cic). 

a.  Two  nouns  or  a  noun  with  an  adjective  may  also  be  put  in 
the  ablative  absolute,  with  the  participial  notion  of  "being"  * 
implied.     Thus  :  — 

Romxim  venit  Mario  cdnsule,  he  came  to  Rome  while 
Marius  was  consul  (Cic.) ;  quid  adulescente  duce  efficere 
possent,  what  they  could  do  with  a  youth  as  leader  (Caes.)  ; 
Hannibale  vivo,  while  Hannibal  was  living  (Nep.). 

h.  A  clause  sometimes  supjilies  the  place  of  the  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Nondum  comperto  quam  in  regionem  venisset  rex, 
not  yet  having  found  out  into  what  region  the  king  had  come 
(Liv.). 

*  It  will  be  remembered  that  esse  has  no  present  participle. 


236 


SYNTAX. 


performs  the  duty  (Cic.)  ;  oppido  pofitl  mnU  they  got  posses- 
sion of  the  town  (Liv.)  ;  vescltur  aura,  feeds  on  air  (Verg.)  ; 
legihus  aim,  to  misuse  the  laws  (Cic.)  ;  defuncti  imperio 
regis,  having  fulfilled  the  king's  command  (Liv.,  i.,  4,  5). 

a.  In   early    Latin    these  verbs    occur  with   the    accusative. 

Thus :  — 

Uteris,  ut  voles,  operam  meam.  you  will  use  my  services  a^ 
you  please  (PL,  Foen.,  v.,  2,  128) ;  munus  fungatur  suuni,  let 
him  perform  his  duty  (PL,  Trln.,  354). 

Note  In  classical  Latin  these  verbs  are  nsed  in  the  fferundive,  not  the 
gerund,  construction  (see  550).  Therefore,  ad  urbem  potmndam  not 
ad  urbe  potiundum,  for  jjettin-  possession  of  the  city;  voluptatis 
fruendae  causd,  not  voluptate  fruendi  cau.J,  for  the  sake  of  enjoying 
pleasure. 

h.  Potior  also  occurs  with  the  genitive ;  as  :  — 
SI  expl-oratum  tibi  sit  posse  te  iUius  regni  potiri,  if  you 
are  satisfied  that  you  can  get  possession  of  that  kingdom  (Cic, 

Fam.,  i.,  7,  5). 

Nitor.  Innitor.  rid5,  Confido. 

420.  Nitor,  inmtor.fldo,  and  cdn/ldo*  take  the  ab- 
lative.    Thus : — 

Baeulo  nltl,  to  lean  on  a  staff  ;  nin  auctoritafe,  to  depend 
on  (some  one's)  influence  ;  fta^ta  innlxus.  leaning  on  his  spear ; 
fulere  eursu,  to  trust  to  running ;  natura  loci  confidebant, 
they  had  confidence  in  their  natural  position. 

a.  Fldo  and  confulo  also  sometimes  take  a  dative  (see 
376),  as  diffido  always  does. 

Adsuesco.  Adsuefacl5.  Consnesco,  Insnesco. 

421.  Adsuesco,  adsuTfacio.  cdmuescd,lnsiiescd*  some- 
times take  the  ablative.t     Thus  :  — 

Aves  sanguine  ft  praeda  adsuetae,  birds  accustomed  to  the 
blood  of  prey  (Hor.)  ;  nulla  officio  aut  disciplina  adsuefao- 
tus,  accustomed  to  no  [restraint  of]  duty  or  training  (Caes.)  ; 

*  The  ablative  with  the  two  sets  of  verbs  treated  in  420  and  421  is 
an  ablative  of  means.     Thus,  baeulo  niti  =  to  support  one's  self  by  means 

of  a  staif.  .  .        ,     . 

T  In  Livy  and  the  later  writers  these  verbs  are  also  used  with  a  dative. 


ABLATIVE   ABSOLUTE. 


237 


ne  gravissimd  dolors  tinwre  consuescerem,  in  order  not  to 
become  accustomed  to  most  bitter  i)ain  through  fear  (Plin.). 

a.  Acqniesfd^  repose  in,  rejoice  in,  takes  most  commonly  in 
with  an  ablative,  but  (especially  in  the  historians  and  later 
writers)  also  a  simple  ablative  or  dative  ;  as  — 

Qui  iam  aetate  provectl,  in  nostris  libris  acquiescunt, 
those  who  are  now  advanced  in  years  find  rest  in  my  books 
(Cic.)  ;  qui  indxime  F.  Clodi  morte  acquierunt,  who  took 
the  greatest  satisfaction  in  the  death  of  Publius  Clodius  (Cic.)  ; 
cui  velut  5raculo  acquiescebat,  to  whom  he  yielded  assent 
as  to  an  oracle  (Suet,  ViteL,  14). 

Ablative  Absolute  {Ablatlvus  ahsolutus), 

AQi2i.  A  noun  and  a  participle  are  put  in  the  ablative, 
not  grammatically  dependent  upon  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence, to  denote  the  time,  reason,  or  circumstances  of 
an  action.     Thus  :  — 

Fythagoras  Tarquinio  regnante  in  Italiam,  venit,  Pytha- 
goras  came  to  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  (Cic.)  ;  hac  ora-  » 
tione  habita,  concilium  dlmlsit,  when  this  speech  had  been  de- 
livered, he  dismissed  the  assembly  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  33)  ;  virtute 
excepta,  nihil  anilcitia  praestdhilius  j^ut^tis,  regard  nothing, 
with  the  exception  of  virtue,  as  of  more  value  than  friendship 
(Cic). 

a.  Two  nouns  or  a  noun  with  an  adjective  may  also  be  put  in 
the  ablative  absolute,  with  the  participial  notion  of  "  being  "  * 
implied.     Thus  :  — 

Romam  veyiit  Mari5  consuls,  he  came  to  Rome  while 
Marius  was  consul  (Cic.) ;  q\nd  adulescente  duce  efficere 
possent,  what  they  could  do  with  a  youth  as  leader  (Caes.)  ; 
Hannibale  vivo,  while  Hannibal  was  living  (Nep.). 

b.  A  clause  sometimes  supjilies  the  place  of  the  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Nondum  comperto  quana  in  regionem  venisset  rex, 
not  yet  having  found  out  into  what  region  the  king  had  come 
(Liv.). 

*  It  will  be  remembered  that  esse  has  no  present  participle. 


238 


SYNTAX. 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PLACE  AND   TIME. 


239 


^s 


c.  A  pronoun  which  would  be  in  the  ablative  absolute  is  some- 
times omitted.*     Thus  :  — 

Additur  dolus,  missis  qui  magnam  vim  rignorum  ardentem 
in  flumen  conicerent,  a  crafty  scheme  was  also  employed  of 
sending  people  to  throw  a  lot  of  burning  wood  into  the  stream 
(Liv.,  i.,  37)  ;  causam  d'lgressus  requirentibus,  when  they 
sought  the  cause  of  the  departure  (Tac,  Hist.,  i.,  27). 

d.  The  ablative  absolute  is  chiefly  used  with  the  present  par- 
ticiple or  the  perfect  passive  participle,  and  when  the  word  in 
the  ablative  does  not  otherwise  occur  in  the  sentence,  but  it  also 
occasionally  occurs  in  the  following  cases :  — 

(1.)  Future  participle  :  — 

Inraptiiris  tarn  infestis  nati5nibus.  when  such  hostile 
nations  were  on  the  point  of  bursting  in  (Liv.). 

(2).  Perfect  participle  of  a  deponent  verb  (rare  with  an  ob- 
ject, but  not  uncommon  otherwise)  :  — 

Sulla  omnia  pollicito,  Sulla  having  promised  everything 
(Sail.,  lug.,  103,  7) ;  seciitis  omnibus,  all  following  (Hor., 
S.,  ii.,  8,  40)  ;  virtutibus  ad  crudutum  profectis,  the  vir- 
tues going  to  the  rack  (Cic,  Tusc,  v.,  28,  80). 

(3.)  The  ablative  denoting  the  same  person  as  the  subject  or 
object  of  the  sentence  :  — 

Ostendlt  se  miM  Infidelem  nnnquam,  se  viva,  fore,  she 
shows  me  that  she  will  never  be  unfaithful  to  me,  as  long  as  she 
lives  (Plant.,  True,  ii.,  4,  85)  ;  Caesar,  obsidibus  impera- 
tis,  has  Haedu'is  custodiendos  tradlt,  Caesar,  having  ordered 
hostages,  gives  them  over  to  the  Haeduans  to  guard  (Caes.,  B. 
G.,  vi.,  4)  ;  riernd  erit  qui  credat  te  invito  provinciam  tibi 
esse  decretam,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  believe  that  the 
province  was  assigned  you  against  your  own  will  (Cic,  Phil., 
xi.,  10,  23). 

*  Expressions  like  tranquillo,  with  a  calm  sea,  sereno,  tinder  a  clear  sky, 
etc.,  may  be  considered  as  ablatives  absolute  with  the  noun  omitted  ;  or, 
perhaps  better,  as  ablatives  of  time,  like  ludis,  comitiis,  at  the  games,  elec- 
tions, etc.     (See  424^  6.) 


(4.)  With  a  predicate  word  added  :  — 

Dolabella  hesternd  die  hoste  decreto,  Dolabella  having 
been  yesterday  decreed  an  enemy  (Cic,  Phil.,  xi.,  7,  16). 

For  the  Constructions  of  Place  and  Time,  see  423  ff. 
For  the  Cases  with  Prepositions,  see  428  ff. 

Constructions  of  Place  and  Time. 
Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space. 

423.  Duration  of  time  and  extent  of  space  are 
expressed  by  the  accusative.     Thus  :  — 

Appius  caecus  multos  annos  fuit,  Appius  was  blind  for 
many  years  (Cic.)  ;  dies  totos  de  virtute  disserunt,  they  dis- 
cuss (about)  virtue  whole  days  together  (Cic.)  ;  cum  ahessem 
ah  Amdno  iter  unius  diei,  when  I  was  one  day's  journey  from 
Mount  Amanus  (Cic). 

(a.)  Measure  may  also  be  expressed  by  a  genitive  of  char- 
acteristic (cf.  366).     Thus:  — 

Duds  fossds  quindecim  pedes  Idtds  perduxit,  he  drew  out 
two  ditches  fifteen  feet  wide  (Caes.)  ;  but  also,  valid  pedum 
duodecim,  with  a  rampai-t  of  twelve  feet  in  height  (Caes.,  B. 
G.,  ii.,  5). 

h.  Distance  may  also  be  expressed  by  an  ablative  of  measure 
(cf.  415).     Thus:  — 

Tria  passuum  milia  ab  ipsa  urhe  castra  posuit,  he  pitched 
his  camp  three  miles  from  the  city  itself  (Liv.)  ;  but  also,  mili- 
bus  passuum  sex  a  Caesar  is  ca^tris  consedit,  he  encamped 
six  miles  from  Caesar's  camp  (Caes.). 

Time  at  which. 

424.  Time  at  which  or  within  which  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative.     Thus  :  — 

Hoc  tempore,  at  this  time  ;  tertia  vigilia  eruptionem  fe- 
cerunt,  they  made  a  sally  in  the  third  watch  (Caes.)  ;  at  hieme 
ndviges,  for  you  to  sail  in  winter  (Cic.) 


240 


SYNTAX. 


a.  The  ablative  occasionally  also  denotes  duration  of  time ; 
as:  — 

M'dites  quinque  hdris  proelinm  sUstlnuerunty  the  lioldiers 
maintained  the  battle  for  five  hours  (Caes.,  B.  C,  i.,  47). 

h.  Many  words  are  used  as  ablatives  of  time  where  the  Eng- 
lish idiom  leads  us  to  expect  a  different  construction.    Thus  :  — 

Ludis.  at  the  games  ;  comitiis,  at  the  elections ;  initi5  or 
principio,  in  the  beginning ;  adventu,  on  the  arrival  ;  dis- 
cessu,  on  the  departure ;  tiUQultu,  bello.  pace,  etc.,  (in  time 
of)  insurrection,  war,  peace,  etc. 

c.  The  day  of  the  month  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  for- 
mula ante  diem  .  .  .  Kalendds,  ydnds^  or  IdFts,  with  the  name 
of  the  month  as  an  adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendds,  Nonas, 
or  IdTis.     Thus :  — 

Is  dies  erat  ante  diem  quintum  Kalendas  Apnlis,  L. 
Plsone  A.  Gab'inlo  consulibus^  that  day  was  the  fifth  before 
the  first  of  April  (/.  e..  Mar.  28th*),  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius 
Piso  and  Aulus  Gabinius  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  6). 

d.  The  year  is  regularly  denoted  by  the  names  of  the  consuls 
in  the  ablative  absolute,  and  generally  without  a  connective,  as 
in  the  preceding  example. 

e.  Instead  of  ante  diem,  etc.,  sometimes  a  simple  ablative  of 
time  is  used,  the  name  of  the  month  remaining  in  the  accusa- 
tive ;  as  :  — 

Qmnt5  decimo  die  Kalendds  SextUls  (XV  Kal.  Sext.), 
the  fifteenth  day  before  the  first  of  August  (i.  «.,  July  18th*). 

/.  The  whole  expression  ante  diem  .  .  .  Kal.,  etc.,  may  be 
treated  as  a  noun  and  governed  by  a  preposition.     Thus  :  — 

Caedem  opti.ndtiuin  contulerat  in  ante  diem  quintum 
Kalendas  Novembris,  he  had  assigned  the  massacre  of  tlie 
nobles  to  the  'J8th  of  October  (cf.  Cic,  Cat.,  i.,  3,  7). 

For  further  treatment  of  the  Roman  calendar,  see  661. 

*  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Romans,  in  reckoning  from  one  day  to 
another,  included  both  days,  while  we  exclude  one  of  them.  Thus  the  28th 
of  March  was  to  the  Romans  the  fifth  day  before  the  Ist  of  April,  while  to 
us  it  is  the  fourth  day. 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PLACE  AND  TIME. 


241 


Place  to,  at,  ix,  from  which. 
.   425.  Relations  of  place  (except  with  names  of  towns) 
are   expressed  by   prepositions,  with   the   accusative   for 
PLACE  TO  WHICH,  and  the  ablative  for  place  at,  in,  or 
FROM,  which.     Thus  :  — 

Te  in  Epirum  venisse  gauded^  I  am  glad  you  have  reached 
Ejiirus  (Cic.)  ;  inde  ad  montem  altum  pervenejimtj  from 
there  they  came  to  a  high  mountain ;  cruentum  helium  in  Afri- 
ca (/erebdtur,  a  bloody  war  was  going  on  in  Africa ;  in  foro 
iUum  inuenies,  you  will  find  him  at  the  market-place ;  ex  Asia 
trd}is7bis  in  Europam,  from  Asia  you  will  go  across  to  Eu- 
rope ;  ab  flumine  statim  discedere  iUssity  he  ordered  them  to 
go  away  from  the  river  at  once. 

426.  With  names  of  towns  (and  small  islands)  — 

(1.)  No  preposition  is  used ;  as :  — 

Regidits  Karthaginem  rediit,  Regulus  went  back  to  Car- 
thage (Cic.) ;  Faiisaniam  cum  classe  Cyprum  mlserunt,  they 
sent  Pausanias  to  Cyprus  with  a  fleet  (Nep.)  ;  ridtu.^  Tlbur© 
vel  Gabiis,  born  at  Tibur  or  Gabii  (Hor.) ;  Brundisio  pro- 
fextl  SKuuis,  we  started  from  Brundisium  (Cic.)  ;  Demardtus 
Tarquinios  Corintho  fugity  Demaratus  fled  from  Corinth  to 
Tarquinii. 

(2.)  The  PLACE  IN  or  at  which  has  the  locative  form 
where  that  is  different  from  the  ablative.*     Thus:  — 

Romae  (diquot  menses  mordbdmur,  we  tarried  some  months 
at  Rome ;  iJionj/sius  tyrannns  Syrdcusls  expulsus  Corinthi 
pueros  docebat,  Dionysius  the  tyrant,  when  driven  from  Syra- 
cuse, kept  a  boys'  school  at  Corinth  (Cic.)  ;  Karthagini 
mortuifs  est,  he  died  at  Carthage. 

But :  — 

Athenis  Plato  vivehat,  Plato  lived  at  Athens;  Sardibus 
haec  facta  sunt,  this  took  place  at  Sardis  ;  etc. 

*  That  is,  in  the  singular  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  some- 
times of  the  third.     (See  88,  a,  93,  97,  :;,  112.) 


242 


SYNTAX. 


a.  Like  names  of  towns  are  used  doimis,  home,  and  rus, 
country,  with  the  hx-atives  helu,  vulitlae,  in  the  field  or  at  war, 
huml,  on  the  ground,  and  the  expressions  furls,  out  of  doors,' 
terra  marlqiie,  on  land  and  sea.  A  locative  domul,  as  well  as 
domlj  occurs. 

h.  A  remnant  of  the  locative  case  is  seen  in  the  use  of  anlml 
with  verbs  and  adjectives  of  emotion  ;  as,  excruciar-i  anlmJ, 
to  be  tortured  in  soul ;  aer/er  a?iu,n,  sick  at  heart;  etc. 

c.  The  ablatives  loco  and  parte,  and  sometimes  others  of  gen- 
eral meaning,  are  used  without  a  i)rei>osition  to  denote  the 
PLACE  WHERE.  So  also  tlie  i)rei)()sition  is  sometimes  omitted, 
when  the  ablative  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  (esi)ecially  tdtus). 
Thus  :  — 

Hoc  loco,  in  this  place ;  en  parte,  on  that  side  ;  urbe  tota 
genutmjit,  a  groan  arises  in  the  whole  town  (Cic.)  ;  t5ta  Asia 
vagdtur,  he  wanders  in  all  Asia  (Cic);  media  urbe,  in  the 
midst  of  the  city  (Liv.,  i.,  33). 

d.  With  librd,  capite,  versif,  etc.,  meaning  the  book,  chapter, 
verse,  etc.,  as  a  whole,  no  preposition  is  used  ;  but  if  a  particu- 
lar place  in  them  is  meant,  the  preposition  is  necessary. 

e.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  with  names  of  coun- 
tries (especially  when  connected  with  nanus  of  towns),  but 
mostly  in  the  ante-classical  and  post-classical  writers.  Cicero 
and  Caesar  use  only  Aegijptiim  thus.  The  poets  omit  the 
preposition  often  even  with  common  nouns.     Thus  : 

Romae  Numidiae/?^^  facinora  eius  memorat,  he  mentions 
his  doings  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia  (Sail.,  lug.,  33,  4)  ;  lltte- 
rae  Macedonia  adlatae,  a  letter  ))rouirht  from  Macedonia 
(LTv.)  ;  Italiam  fFitd  profugus  Lavinia/^/e  venit  litora, 
driven  by  fate  into  exile  he  came  to  Italy  and  the  shores  of 
Lavinium  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  2)  ;  finibus  omnes  prosiluere  suis, 
they  all  leaped  forth  from  their  confines  (Verg.). 

/.  The  accusative  is  used  in  Latin  whenever  motion  to  is 
imjdied,  even  where  the  English  idiom  leads  us  to  expect  the 
ablative.     Thus  :  — 

Coniuratl  in  curiam  convenerunt,  the  conspirators  met  in 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PLACE   AND   TIME;,  243 

the  senate  house ;  legatos  Karthagitiem  in  Africam  miseruiit, 
they  sent  ambassadors  to  Carthage  in  Africa. 

g.  When  the  w^ord  for  '*  town "  is  i)ut  in  apposition  with 
the  name  of  the  town,  and  has  no  adjective  with  it,  the  proper 
name  generally  stands  after  the  connnon  noun,  and  takes  its 
case.     Thus  :  — 

Vercingetorix  expellitur  ex  oppid5  Gergovia,  Vercinge- 
torix  is  being  driven  out  of  the  town  of  Gergovia  ;  Cinwn  in 
oppido  Citio  est  inortuus,  Cimon  died  in  the  town  of  Citium. 

h.  When  the  word  foi-  '-  town  "  has  an  attributive  with  it, 
the  proi)er  name  stands  first,  and  if  in  the  locative  retains  its 
own  case.  A  preposition  meaning  "  at  "  or  '*  in  "  is  here  often 
omitted  with  the  word  for  ''  town  ; "  occasionally  also  one  mean- 
ing "  from."     Thus  :  — 

Tftsctdo,  ex  cldrissimo  mnnicipid,  from  Tusculum,  a  famous 
town  ;  IiignrtJia  Thalam  perveiiif,  in  oppidum  magnum 
et  opulentum,  Jugurtha  arrives  at  Thala,  a  large  and  wealthy 
town ;  Cicero  Arpini  parvo  (in)  oppido  Latl  natus  est,  Ci- 
cero was  born  at  Arj)inum,  a  small  town  of  Latium. 

427.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  used  with  expressions 
of  TIME  for  greater  accuracy,  and  with  names  of  towns  to 
denote  TO,  IN,  or  from,  the  neighborhood  of  the  place. 
Thus  :  — 

Quern  per  decem  annos  aluiinns,  whom  we  have  been 
rearing  for  ten  years  (Cic.)  ;  de  tertia  vigilia  ad  hostes  con- 
tend it,  he  hastened  against  the  enemy  during  the  third  watch 
(Caes.)  ;  in  diebus  proximls  decem,  within  the  next  ten  days 
(Sail.) ;  iter  dlrigere  ad  Mutinam,  to  turn  one's  journey 
towards  Modena  (Cic.)  ;  ab  Alexandria  profectus,  starting 
from  Alexandria  (Cic.)  ;  ex  donio,  from  home. 


Cases  with  Prepositions. 

428    The  cases  used  with  prepositions  are  the  accusa- 
tive and  the  ablative. 


T 


244 


SYNTAX. 


429.    The   accusative   is   used    with    the    following 
twenty-six  prepositions :  — 


ad,  to,  towards, 
adversus   (adver- 

sum),  against. 
ante,  before, 
apud,  near, 
circum      (circa), 

around. 
circiter,  about. 


pone,  behind, 
post,  after. 
praeter,  along  by. 
prope,  near. 
propter,  near^  on 

account  of, 
secundum,  after, 
supra,  above. 


erga,  totvards. 

extra,  outside  of. 

Infra,  belaw. 

inter,  among. 

intra,  within. 

iuxta,  7iext. 

ob,  against,  on  ac- 
count of. 
cis  (citra),  this  side  of   penes,  in  the pawer  of    trans,  across, 
contra,  beyond,  per,  through,  ultra,  beyond. 

Thus : — 

Ad  templum  nTm  aequae  Palladis  Ibant,  they  went  to  the 
temple  of  the  unpropitious  Minerva  (Verg.)  ;  adversus  hastes, 
against  the  foe  (Liv.)  ;  Germdru  qui  cis  Rhenmn  incolunt, 
the  Germans  who  live  this  side  of  the  Rhine  (Caes.)  ;  cum  tan- 
tnm  resideat  intra  muros  mall,  when  so  much  evil  remains 
within  the  city  (Cic.)  ;  prlncijjid  rerum  imperium  penes  reges 
erat,  in  the  beginning  the  power  (over  things)  was  in  the  hands 
of  kings  (JiTst.)  ;  templnni  ponam  propter  aquam.  I  will 
build  a  temple  near  the  water  ( Verg.)  ;  inter  agendum,  in  the 
midst  of  doing  ;  ante  donandum,  before  giving  (Verg.). 

a.  Cis  is  generally  used  with  names  of  places,  citra  with 
other  words  also  ;  as  :  — 

Cis  Taurum,  this  side  Mt.  Taurus  ;  citra  Veliam,  this  side 
Velia ;  citr'i  satietatem,  short  of  satiety. 

b.  Erga  is  very  rarely  used  in  classical  Latin  except  with 
names  of  persons. 

430.  The  ABLATIVE  is  used  with  the  following  ten 
prepositions  :  — 


a  or  ab,  from,  by.  cum,  with, 

ahs^ine,  without.  de,fro7n,  about. 

coram,*  in  presence  e  or  ex,  out  of 

of  prae,  before. 

,  *  Not  before  Cicero. 


pro,  before, 
sine,  without, 
tenus,  as  far  as. 


CASES   WITH   PREPOSITIONS. 


245 


Thus : — 

Ab  Hid  tempore,  from  that  time ;  c^im  exercitu,  with  an 
army ;  certis  de  causls,  for  i)articular  reasons  ;  ex  fuga,  from 
night ;  sine  lafjore,  without  trouble. 

431.  In^  suh^  subtery  super,  take  the  accusative  when 
MOTION  is  implied  (even  figuratively)  ;  the  ablative  for 
relations  of  rest  :  — 

Via  dficit  in  urbeni,  the  way  leads  into  town  (Verg.)  ; 
exercitus  sub  iugum  inlssus  est,  the  army  was  sent  under  the 
yoke  (Caes.)  ;  consul  subter  murum  hostium  ad  cohartes 
advehitur,  the  consul  rides  up  to  the  cohorts  close  under  the 
walls  of  the  enemy  (Liv.,  xxxiv.,  20,  8) ;  super  Idbentem  cul- 
mina  tectl,  gliding  over  the  gable  of  the  roof  (Verg.). 

Media  in  urbe,  in  the  midst  of  the  city  (Ovid.)  ;  bella  sub 
Iliacis  naoenibus  gerere,  to  wage  war  at  the  foot  of  the 
walls  of  Troy  (Ovid.)  ;  super  tener5  prdsternit  gramine 
€07pus,  he  stretches  his  body  on  the  tender  sward  (Verg.). 

Noster  in  te  amor,  my  love  towards  you ;  hostllem  in 
modum,  after  a  hostile  fashion  ;  sub  ea  condicidne,  on  this 
condition  ;  sub  adventii  Romandrum,  just  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Romans  ;  multa  super  Priamo  rogitdns  super  Hec- 
tors rnulta.  asking  many  questions  about  Priam  and  of  Hector 
many  (Verg.). 

a.  Subter  with  the  ablative  is  rare  and  chiefly  poetical. 

b.  Super  in  the  meaning  '^  about,"  as  in  the  last  example, 
takes  the  ablative.  Otherwise  it  almost  always  takes  the  accu- 
sative. 

c.  Verbs  of  placing  (except  sometimes  impono)  take  the 
ablative,  not  accusativCj  with  in,  notwitlistanding  tlie  implied 
motion  ;  as  :  — 

Tres  legiones  in  ilia  urbe  posuit,  he  stationed  three  legions 
in  that  city. 

d.  Tenus  Teguhirly  follows  its  noun.  Various  other  preposi- 
tions occasionally  do  so,  but  chiefly  in  the  poets.  Prepositions 
of  one  syllable  are  the  least  common  in  this  position.     Thus  :  — 

CapuUj  tenus,  as  far  as  the  hilt  (Verg.,  Ae.,  x.,  536)  ;  v^sti- 


24G 


SYNTAX. 


hulum  ante,  before  the  entrance  court  (Verg.,  Ac,  vi.,  273)  ; 
te  propter,  on  your  account  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iv.,  320). 

e.  Cum  is  always  appended  to  the  personal  j)ronouns,  and 
generally  to  the  relative  and  interrogative  forms,  qiw,  fjud,  qui- 
bus,  qui.     Thus  :  — 

Est  mihi  tecum  aimcitia  vetus,  I  have  a  long-standing 
friendship  with  you  ;  vobiscum  siiJiul,  along  with  you  ;  f rater 
qu5cuin  Antiochuni  v'lcerat,  the  brother  with  whom  he  had 
con(piered  Antiochus. 

/.  Temis  occasionally  takes  the  genitive,  thus  retaining  its 
original  force  as  a  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Corcyrae  te?ius,  as  far  as  Corcyra. 

(/.  Certain  adverbs  sometimes  take  the  accusative  or  ablative 
like  prepositions.  So,  with  the  accusative,  pr'idie,  postr'ulie,* 
prophts,  proxime  (cf.  390,  4),  usque  ;  with  the  ablative,  />a- 
/ar/i,  procul^  shmd ;  with  either  case  (or  occasionally  with  a 
genitive  or  dative),  dam.  Thus  :  proxuvit  KarthUybiem,  close 
to  Carthage  (Sail.,  Jug.,  18,  11)  ;  palam  populo,  before  the  peo- 
ple (Liv.,  vi.,  14,  5)  ;  dam  iixorem,  unknown  to  his  wife  (Plaut., 
Merc.,  545)  ;  clam  patris,  unknown  to  his  father  (Plant.,  Merc, 
43). 

Note.  All  the  prepositions  denoted  ori{;inally  relations  of  place, 
takin<?  the  accusative  where  motion  to  or  towards  a  jilace  was  implied, 
otherwise  the  ablative.  This  distinction  is  also  easily  traceable  in  most 
of  the  fiffurative  uses  of  the  prepositions  as  they  grew  out  of  the  relations 
of  place. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Nouns. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  Lcatin  nouns  deserve 
especial  notice  :  — 

432.  Concrete  nouns  are  used  to  denote  the  time  of 
life  at  which  a  person  does  something,  where  in  English 
an  abstract  noun  or  a  clause  is  used.     Thus :  — 

Adulescens  Catd  in  Hispanla  7fnlitarerat,Ca,toha.d  served 
in  Spain  when  a  young  man  (or  in  his  youth). 

So,  a  puero,  etc.,  from  boyhood,  etc. 

*  These  two  words  also  take  a  genitive  (see  355,  5,  h). 


peculiarities  in  the  use  of  nouns. 


247 


433.  So  also  in  designations  of  office.     Thus  :  — 
CatU'tnae  coniurdtldnem   Cicero   c5nsul  oppressit,  Cicero, 

when  consul,  overthrew  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
a.  In  consuldtu  suo  can,  however,  also  be  used. 

434.  Abstract  nouns  are  often  used  in  a  collective 
sense ;  as,  legdtid,  an  embassy  ;  nohilitds,  the  aristocracy  ; 
iuventui<,  the  youth ;  hvis  arinHtura,  the  light  armed 
troops. 

435.  The  singular  of  nouns  denoting  persons  is  also 
used  collectively  instead  of  the  })lural,  especially  in  military 
expressions  ;  as,  miles,  the  soldiery  ;  hostis,  the  enemy  ; 
Poenus,  the  Carthaginian(s).      (Cf.  also  346,  1,  a.) 

436.  The  singular  is  thus  used  for  the  plural  in  names 
of  animals  (to  denote  food),  and  of  plants,  and  sometimes 
other  words.     Thus  :  — 

Villa  abundat  porco,  haed.5,  etc,  the  farmhouse  has  plenty 
of  j)ork,  goat's  meat,  etc.*  ;  caput  redlm'ire  rosa,  to  bind  the 
head  >vith  roses  ;  faba  vesci,  to  feed  on  beans  ;  bestiae  pluma 
obductae,  animals  covered  with  feathers. 

437.  The  plural  is  used  where  in  English  the  singular 
is  preferred  :  — 

(1.)  To  indicate  a  thing  as  belonging  to  several  per- 
sons or  to   PEOPLE   IN   GENERAL.      ThuS  : 

Hostes  terga  vertunt,  the  enemy  turn  their  back ;  animi 
liomuium  immortales  sunt,  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal. 

(2.)  In  names  of  materials,  etc.,  to  denote  KINDS  or 
PIECES  of  the  thing  mentioned ;  as,  vma,  kinds  of  wine  ; 
carnes,  pieces  of  flesh  ;  Ugna,  bits  of  wood. 

(3.)  In  abstract  nouns,  to  denote  INSTANCES  of  the 
quality.     Thus  :  — 

Clarae  mortes  pro  patrld  oppetltae  bedtae  videri  solent, 
an  illustrious  deatli  met  for  one's  country  is  regarded  as  a  hap- 
piness ;  in  odia  hominnm  incurrere^  to  run  into  men's  dislike. 

*  The  same  example  will  he  found  more  fully  quoted  on  p.  230. 


248 


SYNTAX. 


a.  The  ]>liiral  is  not  infrequently  used  for  the  singular  in 
poetry,  as  having  a  more  elevated  and  impressive  effect. 

Note.  Except  in  the  uses  mentioned,  abstract  nouns  are  much  less  com- 
mon in  Latin  than  in  Enjjlish,  verb  constructions,  or  nouns  of  g^eneral 
meaninjj,  like  res,  with  an  adjective,  beings  used  instead.  The  pupil  should 
be  particularly  warned  aj^ainst  using  the  longer  abstracts  in  -tas,  -tia, 
-tio,  etc.,  freely  as  equivalents  of  the  English  words  derived  from  them. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Adjectives. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  adjectives  deserve  especial 
notice  :  — 

438.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns  :  — 

(1.)  Especially,  adjectives  denoting  relationship,  or 
CONNECTION  WITH,  are  often  more  common  as  nouns  than 
as  real  adjectives  ;  as  :  — 

Cognatus  (-«),  a  relative  ;  adflnis,  a  connection  ;  amicus 
(-a),  a  friend  ;  aequalis,  a  contemporaiy ;  vicinus  (-a),  a  neigh- 
bor. 

a.  So  the  gentile  adjectives  ;  as  :  — 

Hojnanus,  a  Roman  ;  Atheniensis,  an  Athenian. 

(2.)  In  the  masculine  plural,  as  in  English,  to  denote 
classes  of  people  ;  as  :  — 

Bonlj  the  good  ;  diviteSj  the  rich ;  docti,  the  learned. 

a.  In  the  singular,  to  denote  a  class,  the  nominative  is  rare  ; 
but  the  other  cases  are  not  uncommon,  especially  the  genitive 
with  esse  ;  as  :  — 

Dementis  hoc  est,  this  is  the  part  of  a  madman. 

(3.)  In  the  neuter,  to  denote  things  ;  as  :  — 
Bonum,  a  good  thing  ;  malum,  an  evil. 

And  especially  perfect  participles  ;  as  :  — 
Factum,  a  deed  ;  responsum,  an  answer. 

a.  The  participle  thus  made  a  noun  may  still  he  modified  by 
an  adverb  ;  as,  praecldre  factiim  as  well  as  praecld rum  factum. 
In  such  cases,  bene,  male,  and  recte  are  always  used  rather 
than  the  corresponding  adjectives. 


peculiarities  in  the  use  of  adjectives.     249 

439.  .Neuter  adjectives  are  also  used  substantively  :  — 
(1.)  In  the  singular,  in  philosophical  language,  to  ex- 
press abstract  ideas ;  as  :  — 

Rectum,  the  right ;  turpe,  tlie  base  ;  summum  bonum,  the 
highest  good. 

(2.)  As  partitive  genitives  ;  as :  — 

Aliquld  novl,  something  new. 

(3.)  In  phrases  with  prepositions ;  as  :  — 

In  medio  rellnquere,  to  leave  undecided  ;  in  medium  ^jro- 
ferre,  to  bring  before  people ;  in  tuto  esse,  to  be  in  safety ; 
sine  dubio,  without  doubt. 

(4.)  In  the  jdural  where  in  English  often  an  abstract 
singular  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

lusta  d'lcere,  to  say  what  is  just ;  pestifera  a  salutaribus 
dlsceniere,  to  distinguish  the  baneful  from  the  salutary. 

a.  Only  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  common  in  this 
use.  Confusion  with  the  similar  masculine  forms  would  often 
arise  in  the  other  cases,  and  then  res  is  used  with  the  adjective 
{bondrum  rerum  z=  bouorum,  n.,  etc.).  But  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  ambiguity  such  neuters  occur  ;  as  :  — 

Prlmum,  omnium^  first  of  all  things. 

440.  Adjectives  are  often  used  in  Latin  where  English 
prefers  a  possessive  case  or  a  noun  with  a  preposition, 
especially  adjectives  formed  from  names  of  nations  or  in- 
dividuals.    Thus :  — 

MVltes  PompeianL  the  soldiers  of  Pompey  ;  oratlo  Cice- 
roniana,  an  oration  of  Cicero's  ;  bellum  lugurthinum,  the 
war  against  Jugurtha ;  pugna  Cannensis,  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae ;  Dion  Syracusanus.  Dion  of  Syracuse. 

441.  Attributive  adjectives  are  very  rarely  used  in 
direct  agreement  with  proper  names  or  with  words  like 
consul,  which  characterize  an  individual.  The  adjective 
is  commonly  made  to  agree  with  an  appellative  noun  put 
in  apposition  with  the  proper  name.     Thus :  "  the  wise 


250 


SYNTAX. 


Scipio"  is  Sctpio^  vir  sapientissimus  ;  "  wealthy  Capua  " 
is  Capua,  urbs  opulentissima. 

a.  Adjectives  of  (luantity  or  number,  however,  are  oonimon  as 
attributives.  Thus :  tota  Hlspania,  entire  Spain ;  Bomdnl 
duo,  two  Romans.  So  also  in  expressions  Hke  Pompeius 
magnus,  Pompey  the  Great ;  Karthago  nova,  new  Carthage ; 
Sclplo  maior,  Scipio  the  elder. 

442.  The  superlatives  summits,  tmiis,  ultimus,  extre- 
mus,  primus,  with  the  word  mexlius,  are  used,  directly 
asrreeino'  with  a  noun,  to  denote  the  top  or  bottom,  high- 
EST,  FIRST,  MIDDLE  part  of,  etc.     Thus :  — 

Summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  mountain ;  in  extrema  o/v7- 
tidne,  at  the  end  of  his  speech  ;  media  ab  urbe,  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  city ;  prima  aestdte,  at  the  be«,nnninf]f  of  summer. 

So,  novissimo  agmine^  on  the  rear  of  the  hne  of  march. 

For  special  uses  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives,  see  164. 


Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Pronouns. 

Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns. 

443.  In  the  first  person  the  plural  of  the  personal 
and  possessive  pronouns  is  often  used,  out  of  politeness, 
for  the  singular  (^i^lurtdis  modestiae).     Thus  :  — 

Hunc  libntm  ad  te  de  senectute  misimus,  this  book  I  have 
written  on  old  age  and  dedicated  to  you  (Cic,  Sen.,  i.,  3)  ; 
Cafonis  sermo  explimblt  nostram  omnem  de  senectute  senten- 
t'lam^  Cato's  words  will  explain  all  my  opinion  about  old  age 
(Cic,  ibidem). 

a.  The  phiral  of  the  second  person  is  neve)'  used  as  in  Eng- 
lish for  the  singular.  When  it  seems  to  be  so  used,  it  will  always 
be  found  that  more  persons  than  the  individual  addressed  are 
referred  to ;  as,  for  instance,  his  family  or  comrades. 

444.  The  possessive  pronouns,  like  the  personals  (cf. 
316,  a),  are  expressed  only  when  emphatic  (as  marking 
a  contrast)  or  to  avoid  amhiguity.  In  the  first  case  they 
precede,  in  the  second  they  follow,  their  noun.     Thus  :  — 


peculiarities  in  the  use  of  pronouns.      251 

Delude  ego  Ulurn  de  suo  regno,  ille  me  de  nostra  re  pu- 
blica  percontritus  est,  then  I  questioned  him  about  his  kingdom 
and  he  me  about  our  state  (Cic,  Be  Fub.,  vi.,  9)  ;  vestra 
vero  quae  dlcitur  vita  7fiors  est,  but  your  so  called  life  is 
really  death  (Cic,  Ee  Fub.,  vi.,  14). 

Quocircd  si  sapientiam  meam  admlrarl  soletis  —  quae 
lit  I  nam  dlgna  esset  opini5ne  vestra  nostvbque  cogno- 
mine !  —  in  hoc  sumus  sapientes,  quod,  etc.,  therefore  if  you 
are  wont  to  look  with  admiration  upon  my  wisdom  —  oh  that  it 
were  worthy  of  your  good  opinion  and  my  surname  (i.  e..  Sapi- 
ens) I  —  it  is  in  this  that  I  am  wise,  that,  etc.  (Cic,  Sen.,  2,  5). 

Eeflexive  and  Intensive  Pronouns. 

445.  (1.)  The  reflexive  pronouns,  se  and  suns,  are 
used  primarily  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or 
clause  in  which  they  stand.     Thus  :  — 

Oppidani  f acinus  in  se  ac  SMbsfoedum  et  ferum  conscts- 
cunt,  the  townspeople  resolve  uj)on  a  barbarous  and  revolting 
deed  against  themselves  and  theirs  (Liv.,  xxviii.,  22,  5). 

Ipse  se  quisque  d'tlig it,  ndn  ut  aliquam  a  se  ipse  viercedem 
exigat  carltatis  suae,  sed  quod  per  se  sibi  quisque  carus  est, 
every  one  loves  himself,  not  in  the  expectation  of  getting  from 
himself  any  reward  whatever  for  his  fondness,  but  because 
every  one  is  fond  of  himself  for  his  own  sake  (Cic,  Am.,  21, 
80). 

Ariovistus  respondlt  ndn  oportere  sese  a  populo  Rdmdno 
in  suo  iure  imped'irl,  Ariovistus  answered  that  he  ought  not  to 
be  interfered  witli  by  the  Roman  people  in  the  exercise  of  his 
own  rights  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  I,  36). 

Caesar,  mllites  cohortatusut  au&e  prist inae  virtutls  memo- 
riam  retinerent,  Caesar,  having  exhorted  the  soldiers  to  hold  fast 
to  the  remembrance  of  their  own  old  time  valor  (Caes.,  B.  G., 
ii.,  21). 

a.  Thus  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  se  regularly  refers  to  the 
speaker,  while  the  person  addressed  is  referred  to  by  ilium  or 
eum. 


252 


SYNTAX. 


(2.)  In  dependent  clauses  which  are  so  thoroughly 
subordinated  that  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  is  left 
more  prominently  in  the  mind  than  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause,  se  and  suus  refer  to  the  subject  of 
the  main  clause,  unless  ambiguity  might  be  caused  there- 
by.    Thus :  — 

Orator  sagaciter  pervestiget  quid  sui  (fives  cogitent,  opinen- 
tu7%  exspectent,  our  orator  will  cleverly  search  out  the  thoughts^ 
opinions,  and  expectations  of  his  own  countrymen  (cf.  Cic,  de 
Or.,  i.,  51,  223). 

Africanus,  si  sua  res  ageretur,  testimdnium  non  dlceret, 
Africanus  would  not  be  giving  evidence,  if  it  were  his  case  that 
was  before  the  court  (Cic,  Kdsc.  Am.,  36,  103). 

Camillus  mihi  scrljjsit  te  seciim  locFitum  esse,  CamiUus 
wrote  me  that  you  had  talked  with  him  (Cic,  Att.,  xi.,  23,  l). 

a.  This  reference  of  se  or  suns  chiefly  occurs  where  from  the 
nature  of  the  situation  a  reflexive  referring  to  the  subject  of 
the  subordinate  clause  would  be  unnatural  or  impossible,  as  m 
the  examples,  and  where  if  the  dependent  sentence  were  mde- 
pendent  it  would  not  contain  a  reflexive.  Thus  the  first  and 
third  examples  above  would  become :  — 

Qicid  cogitant  (etc.)  elves  eius  (i.  e.,  dratdris)  ;  tu  cum 
eo  (i.  e.,  Camilld)  locutus  es. 

h.  If  any  ambiguity  might  arise,  ipse  is  used  in  the  subordi- 
nate clause  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  main  clause.  Thus :  — 
lugurtha  legatds  mlsU  qui  ipsi  Uherlsque  vltam  peterent, 
Jugurtba  sent  ambassadors  to  beg  for  his  life  and  his  cliildren  s 
(cf.  Sail.,  lug.,  46,  2). 

446.  Se  and  suus  may  further  be  used,  when  it  can 
be  done  without  ambiguity,  to  refer  to  words  other  than 
the  subject,  especially  :  — 

(1.)  To  the  person  thought  o/*  as  acting,  though  not 

grammatically  the  subject.     Thus  :  — 

A  Caesare  invitor  ut  sitn  sibi  legatus.  I  am  invited  by 
Caesar   to   be   his   lieutenant;    vos  ex  M.    Favonio  aiidlstis 


REFLEXIVE  AND  INTENSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


253 


Clodium  sibi  dlxlsse  periturum  ^litonem,  you  have  heard 
Marcus  Favonius  say  that  Clodius  had  told  him  that  Milo 
should  die  (Cic,  3111.,  16,  44)  ;  contentum  suis  rehas  esse 
sujit  maxiJiiae  dlvitiae,  to  be  content  with  one's  lot  is  great 
riches. 

(2.)  In  various  cases  where  the  English  puts  in  "  own  " 
or  "  very."     Thus  :  — 

Rdnidnls  multitUdo  sua  auxit  animum,  their  very  numbers 
increased  the  courage  of  the  Romans ;  valetadinem  ipsam  per 
se  expetimus,  we  aim  at  good  health  for  its  own  sake. 

a.  Thus  sometimes  two  or  more  instances  of  se  occur  in  the 
same  sentence  referring  to  different  persons.     Thus  :  — 

Scythae petehant  ut  regis  am.  flliam  matrimdnio  sibi  iuiige- 
ret,  the  Scythians  asked  him  [i.  e.,  Alexander]  to  unite  the 
daughter  of  their  king  to  himself  in  marriage  (Curt.)  ;  quod 
sibi  Caesar  deiiuiitlaret  se  Haedudrum  iniurids  non  neglec- 
turum,  nemiiiem  secum  sine  sua  pemieie  contendisse,  as  to 
Caesar's  announcement  to  him  [Ariovistus]  that  he  [Caesar] 
would  not  disregard  the  wrongs  done  to  the  Haeduans,  nobody 
had  fought  with  him  [Ariovistus]  without  coming  to  grief  him- 
self [i.  e.,  neirw']  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.  36). 

447.  The  place  of  the  third  personal  pronoun  when  not 
reflexive  is  supplied  by  is,  ea,  id,  or,  if  a  stronger  form  is 
wanted,  by  ille  or  Mc.     Thus  :  — 

Quod  fere  cottldiRnls  proelils  cum  Germdnls  contendunt  cum 
aut  suls  flnihus  eos  prohlbent,  aut  ipsl  in  eorum  ftnibus 
bellum  gerunt,  because  they  struggle  in  almost  daily  battles 
with  the  Germans,  when  either  they  try  to  keep  them  out  of 
their  country  or  themselves  make  war  in  the  Germans'  country 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  1)  ;  Ariovistus  respondit,  si  quid  ipsl  a 
Caesare  opus  esset,  sese  ad  eum  renturum  fuisse  ;  si  quid  ille 
se  velit,  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere,  Ai'iovistus  answered  that 
if  he  had  wanted  any  thing  of  Caesar  he  should  have  gone  to 
him  ;  if  Caesar  wanted  any  thing  of  him  he  ought  to  come  to 
him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  34). 

a.  Sometimes  the  demonstrative  is  used  where  the  reflexive 


254 


SYNTAX. 


would  seem  more  natural.      Here  the  writer  changes  for  the 
moment  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  subject  to  his  own  point 

of  view.     Thus  :  — 

Heluetu  jjersuadent  Eauracls  ut  Una  cuvi  us  proficiscantur, 
the  Helvetians  persuaded  the  Rauraci  to  go  forth  with  them 
(Caes.)  ;  ita  se  yessit  [Lujarlu.^]  ut  ei  pacem  esse  expedlret, 
Ligarius  so  conducted  himself  that  it  was  for  his  advantage  to 
have  peace  (Cic.)  ;  ^Delphos']  postquam  ventum  est,  ci/p'ulo 
incesslt  atiimos  iavenum  sclscitandl  ad  quern  eoTum  regnum 
JRomdnum  esset  venturum,  after  they  had  come  to  Delphi  a 
desire  entered  the  minds  of  the  young  men  to  find  out  to  which 
of  them  the  Roman  kingdom  was  to  come  (Liv.,  i.,  56,  10). 

448.  The  intensive  //;se  is  used  :  — 

(1.)  To  express  the  emphasis  which  is  given  in  English 
by  "  himself,"  "  herself,"  ''  itself,"  or  "  very,"  or  by  some 
circumlocution  like  that  in  the  last  example  below. 
Thus :  — 

Ipsa  spes  inopiam  sustentdbat,  their  hope  itself  (or  their 
veru  hope)  made  their  want  endurable  ;  a  viultls  ipsa  virtus 
contemnitur,  virtue  herself  is  despised  by  many ;  praecipitur 
ut  nohlsmet  ipsis  imperemus,  it  is  taught  that  we  should  exer- 
cise control  over  ourselves  ;  medici  ipsi  se  curdre  mrri  possujit, 
physicians  cannot  cure  themselves ;  Lucretla  se  ipsa  interemlt, 
Lucretia  killed  herself  with  her  own  hand. 

Cf .  also  the  first  example  under  447. 

a.  The  Romans  had  a  fancy  for  making  ipse  agree  with  the 
subject,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  where  we  put  *'  self  "  with 
the  object. 

(2.)  To  refer  (in  the  same  way  that  se  refers  to  the 
subject  of  its  own  sentence),  to  a  person  or  thing  in  an- 
other sentence  connected  with  its  own  ;  as :  — 

Arlovistus  respondit,  si  quid  ipsi  a  Caesare  opus  esset,  etc. 

See  this  example  under  447  on  preceding^  pagre,  and  also  cf.  445,  2,  6. 

449.  The  reciprocal  meaning  of  the  English  "each 
other,"  "  one  another,"  is  expressed  in  Latin  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


REFLEXIVE   AND   INTENSIVE   PRONOUNS. 


255 


(1.)  By  inter  7108,  inter  fos,  and,  for  the  third  person, 
when  the  reference  is  to  a  nominative  or  an  accusative, 
by  inter  se  ;  otherwise  by  inter  ijysos.     Thus  :  — 

Inter  nos  ndturd  coniinicti  suimcs,  we  are  bound  to  each 
other  by  natural  ties  ;/m//'?s  inter  se  cumfornid  turn  moribiis 
similes,  brothers  resembling  each  other  in  both  person  and  char- 
acter (Cic.)  ;  ferds  inter  sese  conciUat  ndtura,  nature  makes 
wild  beasts  agree  with  one  another  (Cic.) ;  incidunt  aliqua  a 
doct'is  etiarn  inter  ipsos  mntud  reprehensa,  some  things  come 
in  which  learned  people  reciprocally  blame  in  each  other 
(Quint.). 

a.  With  inter  se  a  reflexive  accusative  or  dative  is  omitted ; 
as :  — 

Fue7'i  ainant  (sc.  se)  inter  se,  the  boys  love  each  other; 
c'lves  inter  se  (sc.  sib!)  grdtuldhantur,  tlie  citizens  congratu- 
lated each  other.  \ 

(2.)  Or  alter,  repeated  in  a  different  case,  may  be  used 
when  only  two  persons  or  things  are  meant ;  alius,  if 
more  than  two  are  meant.  The  plural  of  alter  is  used  of 
two  parties.     Thus  :  — 

Mllites  alius  alium  hortdtur,  the  soldiers  encourage  one 
another ;  iioxil  avibo  alter  ///  alterum  causam  conferunt,  both 
being  guilty  they  each  throw  the  blame  upon  the  other ;  alter! 
alteros  vincere  quovls  tnodo  volunt,  each  side  wishes  to  beat  the 
other  by  any  possible  means. 

Cf.  also,  homines  inter  se  alii  aliis  prodesse  volunt,  men 
wish  to  benefit  each  other  reciprocally. 

(3.)  Or  a  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  repeated  in  a  differ- 
ent case.     Thus  :  — 

Tantae  fuerunt  tenebrae  ut  per  btduum  nemo  hominem 
noni5  agndsceret,  the  darkness  was  so  great  that  for  two  days 
men  could  not  recognize  each  other  at  all  (Cic,  N.  Z>.,  ii.,  38, 
96) ;  Atticus  moriens  non  ex  vita  sed  ex  donao  in  domum 
inigrdre  videbdtur,  Atticus  in  dying  seemed  not  to  be  moving 
out  of  life  but  out  of  one  home  into  another  (cf.  Nep.,  xxv.,  22)  ; 


256 


SYNTAX. 


neque  duudicari  posset  uter  utri  virtUte  anfeferendus  vide- 
retur,  nor  could  it  be  decided  which  of  the  two  seemed  more 
admirable  in  valor  than  the  other  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  v.,  44). 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 
In  addition  to  what  was  said  of  the   demonstratives  in 
181,  the  following  points  deserve  notice :  — ^ 

450.  (1.)  IIic  (especially  the  neuter  hfjc)  is  used  to 
refer  to  something  immediately  to  be  introduced ;  but  if 
the  thing  is  to  be  marked  emphatically  as  opposed  to  other 
things  said,  ille  (especially  ilhul}  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Inter  omnes  hoc  constat,  vlrdrum  esse  fortium  toleranter 
dolorem  patt,  all  men  are  agreed  upon  this  point,  that  to  suffer 
pain  with  patient  endurance  is  characteristic  of  brave  men  ;  hoc 
modo  locutus  est,  he  spoke  as  follows. 

But :  cum  multa  alia  mlrabUia  sunt  turn  illud  imprimis, 
not  only  are  there  many  other  admirable  things,  but  this  is  es- 
pecially admirable;  illud  vero  idem  Caecilius  vitldslus,  but 
the  following  remark  of  the  same  Caecilius  is  more  reprehen- 
sible (Cic,  Sen.,  8,  25). 

(2.)  lUe  often  refers  to  that  which  is  well  known,  far 
mous,  or  of  general  notoriety.     Thus :  — 

Medea  iUa.  the  Medea  of  story  ;  marjnd  iUi  Alexandra  si- 

millimus,  closely  resembling  the  (well  known)  great  Alexander. 

(3.)  Is  is  used  as  the  antecedent  of  a  relative  which 

describes  a  class  of  persons  or  things  =  "  he  who,"  "  the 

one  who,"  ''  such  as."     Thus  :  — 

Eum  qui  palam  est  adversarius  facile  cavendo  vitdre  pos- 
sl5,  one  who  is  openly  an  enemy  you  can  easily  escape  by 
guarding  against  him ;  neque  enim  tu  is  es  qui  quid  sis  nes- 
cias,  for  you  are  not  such  a  person  as  not  to  know  what  you 
are  (Cic). 

a.  Is  is  sometimes  used  to  resume  mention  of  a  preceding 
subject  where  it  seems  unnecessary ;  as  :  — 

Servus  ineus  aufugit ;  is  est  in  prdvincia  tua,  a  slave  of 
mine  has  run  away  ;  he  is  in  your  domain. 


DEMONSTRATIVE   AND   RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.        257 

h.  When  "  that  *'  or  *'  those  of  "  is  used  in  Enghsh  instead  of 
the  repetition  of  a  noun,  no  pronoun  is  used  in  Latin.    Thus  :  — 

Fhilippus  hostlum  manus  saepe  vltdvit,  siiorum  effugere  non 
valuit,  Philip  often  escaped  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  avoiding  those  of  his  own  subjects  (Curt.)  ;  Xu- 
mae  regnum  multo  erat  pacatius  quam  Romuli,  Numa's  reign 
was  much  more  peaceful  than  tliat  of  Romulus.  (Cf.  also 
353,  e). 

Relative  Pronouns. 

In  addition  to  what  was  said  in  342-344  about  rela- 
tive pronouns,  the  following  points  should  be  noted  :  — 

451.  The  relative  is  often  used  to  connect  an  indepen- 
dent sentence  with  what  has  gone  before,  where  in  English 
a  different  form  of  connection  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Multas  ad  res  perutiles  Xenophotitls  libri  sunt,  quos  leglte, 
quaeso,  stiulidse,  Xenophon's  works  are  very  profitable  in  many 
respects,  and  I  beg  you  read  them  zealously  ;  quae  rum.  ita 
sinty  CatiZina,  perge  quo  coejnsti,  now  since  this  is  so,  Catiline, 
go  on  as  you  have  begun. 

a.  A  special  instance  of  this  connecting  relative  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  qvxfd  SI,  quod  nisi,  for  "  but  if,"  "  and  if,"  or  "  if  not," 
where  the  quod  is  really  accusative  of  specification. 

462.  The  Latin  expresses  "  such  is  my,  your,"  etc.,  and 
"  so-called,"  by  a  relative,  as  follows :  — 

Quae  tua  est  prUdentia,  such  is  your  discretion  ;  si  mihf  ne- 
gotium  permlsisses,  qui  me^is  in  te  amor  est,  confecissem,  if 
you  had  entrusted  the  business  to  me,  I  should  have  accom- 
plished it,  such  is  my  love  for  you  ;  vestra  quae  dlcltur  *  vita, 
your  so-called  life. 

453.  The  difference  between  Latin  and  English  use 
shoidd   be  observed  in   relative  clauses  like  the    follow- 


ing: 


Thras}jhnld  corona  a  jtopido  data  est,  quam  quod  amor 

*  In  this  use  the  relative  clause  is  usually  thus  inserted  between  an  at- 
tributive and  its  noun. 


258 


SYNTAX. 


clvmm  dederat  nTdlam  hahuit  invidiam,  &  wreath  was  given  by 
the  people  to  Thrasybulus  which  caused  no  envy  because  the 
love  of  his  countrymen  had  given  it ;  adsentior  Platoiii  quem 
tn  quana  facias  sc id,  I  agree  with  Plato,  and  I  know  how  highly 
you  esteem  him ;  non  satis  ])olltt(s  es  els  artibm.  quas  qui 
tenent  emdin  appellantur,  you  are  not  well  enough  perfected 
in  those  branches  which  cause  their  possessors  to  be  called  edu- 
cated. 

Indefinite    Pronouns. 
The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  indefinite  pro- 
nouns should  be  noted  :  — 

454.  Quisquam  is  the  most  general  of  the  indefi- 
nite pronouns,  and  means  "anybody  at  all."  Qulvis  and 
qmlibet  are  nearly  as  indefinite,  meaning  "any  one  you 
l)lease."     Thus :  — 

QuamdlTi  quisquam  erit,  qui  te  defendere  andeat,  vires. 

as  long  as  there  shall  be  anybody  who  will  venture  to  defend 

you,  you  shall  live  (Cic,  Cat.,  i.,  2,  6)  ;  si  quisquam  est  timi- 

dus  in  vrngnls  perlculdslsque  rebus,  is  ego  sum,  if  any  one  is 

timid  in  great  and  dangerous  things,  1  am  he  (Cic,  Fam.,  vi., 

14,  1)  ;  cuivis  potest    accidere   quod    cuiquam  potest,  what 

can  happen  to  anybody  at  all,  can  happen  to  anybody  you  will 

{i.  e.,  to  everybody)    (Sen.,  T/'.,  11,  6)  ;  omnia  sunt  eiusmodi 

quivis  ut  perspicere  possit,  all  are  of  such  a  nature  that  any 

one  you  please  can  understand  them  (Cic.)  ;  hlc  apnd  mawres 

nostros  adhibebatur  perltus,  nunc  quilibet.  in  such  a  case  an 

expert  used  to  be  employed  in  the  tin.e  of  our  ancestors,  now 

any  one  at  all  [will  do]   (Cic.)  ;  non  cuivis  homini  continyit, 

it  does  not  fall  to  every  man's  good  fortune  (Hor.). 

a.  Sometimes  the  verb  part  of  qulvis  and  q^'V^hcf  is  inflected. 

Thus  :  — 

Domimis  vlnd  quid  volet  faciet,  the  master  will  do  what- 
ever he  likes  with  the  wine  (CatG,  II.  B„  47  and  48.  2)  ;  Ja- 
cile  cui  velles  tuam  causam  probares,  you  could  have  proved 
your  case  to  any  one  you  wished  (Cic,  Verr.,  iv.,  12,  28). 


INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 


259 


455.  (1.)  Quisquam,  with  the  corresponding  adjec- 
tive ullus,  is  used  especially  in  negative  sentences,  or  sen- 
tences implying  a  negation.     Thus  :  — 

Neque  ex  castrls  Cat  Ulnae  quisquam  omnium  d'lscesserat, 
nor  had  any  one  at  all  deserted  from  Catiline's  camp  (Cic.)  ; 
7iec  ullo  casu  potest  contingere  ut  ulla  intermlssio  flat  officl, 
nor  can  it  by  any  chance  happen  that  there  be  any  interruption 
of  the  obligation  of  duty  (Cic.)  ;  a??  quisquam  potest  slue 
jyerturbdtione  mentis  Irdscl  ?  or  can  any  one  indulge  in  anger 
without  disturbance  of  his  mental  equipoise  ?  (Cic,  Tusc.,  iv., 
24,  54)  :  taetrior  hie  tyrannus  Syrdcusdnls  fuit  quam  quis- 
quam super iorum,  this  tyrant  was  more  loathsome  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Syracuse  than  any  of  his  predecessors  (Cic). 

a.  Instead  of  7idn  quisquam,  unless  the  pronoun  is  rather  em- 
phatic, neino  or  nihil  is  used,  and  similarly  nullus  instead  of 
non  ullus.  Nullus,  besides  its  adjective  use,  supplies  the  place  of 
the  genitive  and  ablative  singular  and  the  plural  of  nenio,  and  the 
cases  of  nihil  other  than  nominative  and  accusative  singular.* 

b.  Nenw  is  used,  not  nidlus,  with  adjectives  used  as  substan- 
tives ;  as,  nerno  Romdnus,  no  Roman. 

456.  Quis  (^quT)  is  the  nnemphatic  ''  any,"  "  one," 
and  is  used  chiefly  after  6*7,  nisi,  lie,  num,  and  the  pro- 
nouns, as  quo,  quanto,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Si  quis  mlrdtur,  if  any  one  wonders  ;  num  quis  hoc  nescit  ? 
does  not  every  one  know  this  ?  iustitiae  prlmum  munus  est  ut 
ne  cui  quis  noceat,  the  first  injunction  of  justice  is  that  one 
shall  harm  no  one  ;  detrahere  quid  de  aliquo,  to  take  away 
something  from  somebody. 

a.  After  si,  nisi,  ne,  num,  the  forms  quis  and  qui  are  used 
indifferently  as  substantives  or  adjectives  ;  otherwise,  as  with 
the  interrogative  pronoun,  quis  is  substantive,  qui,  adjective. 

457.  Aliquis,  some  one  or  other,  any  one,  is  less 
nidefinite  than  quii<,  as  is  seen  especially  after  si,  nisi,  ne, 
etc.     Thus :  — 

Si  est  aliqui   sensus   in   morte  praecldroruni   virorum,    if 
*  Thorft  is,  however,  also  a  declined  form  of  nihil.     (Cf.  137,  1 ,  a.) 


260 


SYNTAX. 


illustrious  men  have  some  consciousness  when  dead  (Cic.,  Sest, 
62,  131);  tirmhat  Pompelus  omnia  ne  aliquid  vos  tlmlretis, 
pJmpey  watched  all  things  with  anxiety  that  you  might  have 
no  anxiety  (Cic). 

a.  Aliquis  is  especially  common  in  the  emphatic  meaning 
some  at  least.     Thus  :  — 

IJst  hoc  aliquid,  tainetsl  non  est  satis,  this  is  something  at 
least,  although  it  is  not  enough  (Cic,  Caec,,  15,  47)  ;  midtl  sine 
doctnna  aliquid  mnnium  generiim  et  artium  consequontur, 
many  without  teaching  acquire  something  in  all  branches  of 
learning  (Cic). 

458.  Quispiam,  some  one,  is  more  definite  than  aliquis. 

Thus : — 

Hereditas  est  pecTinia,  quae  morte  alicuius  ad  quempiam 
pervenit  iure,  an  inheritance  is  money  which  at  some  one's 
death  comes  to  a  person  legally  (Cic.)  ;  quaeret  fortasse  quis- 
piam,  some  one  will  perhaps  ask. 

459.  Quldarn,  some  particular  one,  is  the  most  definite 
of  these  pronouns,  and  implies  that  a  person  or  thing  is 
definitely  known,  though  indefinitely  described.    Thus  :  — 

Quidam  de  conlegls  Jiostr'is,  one  of  my  colleagues  (Cic) ; 
scls  vie  quodam  tempore  Metapmtum  venisse  tecum,  you  know 
that  at  a  certain  time  I  went  with  you  to  Metapontum  (Cic). 

a.  Quidam  often  expresses  what  in  English  is  denoted  by 
"  a  sort  of ;  "  as :  — 

M'dvd  est  quoddam  bellum  ndturale  cum  conw,  the  kite 
has  a  sort  of  natural  antagonism  toward  the  crow  (Cic,  N.  />., 

ii.,  49,  125). 

460.  When  only  two  persons  or  things  are  referred  to, 

the  following  pronouns  are  used  :  — 

alter,  the  other.  uter  ?  which  ? 

neuter,  neither.  uterque,  both. 

Corresponding  to  the  foUowing,  if  more  than  two  are 
referred  to  :  — 

alius,  another.  q^is  ?  who  ? 

nemo,  nfdlus,  none.  qu'isque,  each. 


INDEFINITE    PRONOUNS.  —  THE   VERB. 


261 


a.  Amho  is  used  for  "  both  "  only  when  the  thing  said  applies 
in  the  same  way  to  the  two  objects ;  otherwise  uterque  is  used ; 
as  :  — 

Caesar  atque  Pompeius  dlversa  sibf  ambo  consilia  capiunt 
.  .  .  eodemque  die  uterque  eorum  ex  castrls  exercitum  edu- 
cunt,  Caesar  and  Pompey  both  adopt  different  plans,  .  .  .  but 
on  the  same  day  both  lead  out  their  armies  from  camp  (Caes., 
B.  C,  iii.,  30). 

6.  Alter  is  used  for  the  English  "  one's  neighbor  ;  "  as  :  — 

Nihil  alterius  causa  facere,  to  do  nothing  for  one's  neigh- 
bor's sake. 

c.  The  following  distinctions  should  be  observed  :  — 

alter         =  the  other ;  alterl  z=i  the  other  party. 
alius         =■  another ;      alii     =.  others. 
ceterl       :=.  all  the  others,  the  rest. 
alteruter  =  one  or  the  other. 
Cf.  also  449,  2. 

d.  For  the  convenience  of  the  pupil  the  following  series  of 
the  words  for  number  is  given  :  — 

panel  =  a  few,  only  a  few. 

aliquot  =  some,  not  many,  several. 

nonnuUl  =■  some  (indeterminate). 

plures  =  several,  rather  many. 

midtl  =  many. 

pluriml  =  very  many. 

plerlque  =  most. 
unusquisque  =  each  and  all. 

Syntax  of  the  Verb. 


Tenses. 

461.  The  IMPERFECT,  present,  and  future  mark  an 
action  or  event  simply  as  taking  place  (beginning  or  con^ 
tinuing)  in  the  present,  past,  or  future  respectively. 

462.  The  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future  perfect 
mark  an  action  or  event  as  completed. 


262 


SYNTAX. 


(1.)  The  PERFECT  marks  something  as  completed 
either  (a)  in  the  present  (perfect  definite)  or  (6)  in 
the  INDEFINITE  PAST  (/.  e.,  without  reference  to  any  other 
event  —  historical  perfect  or  aorist).*     Tims :  — 

(a.)  [NatUra']  oculos  membrariis  tenulssimls  vestivit  et 
saepsit,  nature  has  clothed  and  protected  the  eye  with  a  very 
delicate  membrane  (Cic,  ^Y.  D.,  ii.,  57,  142). 

{b.)  Ita  tantmn  helium  .  .  .  extrema  hieme  adparavit, 
ineunte  vere  suscepit,  77mUa  aestdte  confecit,  thus  he  got 
ready  for  this  great  war  in  the  last  part  of  winter,  entered  upon 
it  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  and  finished  it  in  mid-summer 
(Cic,  Le(/.  Man.,  12,  .35). 

(2.)  The  PLUPERFECT  marks  something  as  completed 
at  or  before  the  beginning  of  some  other  past  action  or 
event.     Thus  :  — 

PyrrhJ  tetnjwribiis  iam  Apollo  versus  facere  desierat,  in 
the  time  of  Pyrrhus  Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  give  oracles 
(Cic,  Dlv.,  ii.,  bO),  lie). 

(3.)  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  marks  something  as  com- 
pleted at  or  before  the  time  of  some  other  future  action 
or  event.     Thus  :  — 

Cum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  Caesarem  fortasse  convenero, 
when  you  are  reading  this  I  shall  perhai)s  have  met  Caesar. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  tenses  deserve  special 
mention  :  — 

463.  Statements  which  are  true  of  all  time,  and  have 
therefore  a  special  interest  in  the  present,  such  as  general 
truths,  are  expressed  by  the  present  tense.     Thus :  — 

Labor  omnia  vincit,  labor  conquers  all  things. 

a.  Sometimes  a  general  statement,  instead  of  being  thus 
directly  stated  by  the  present,  is  implied  by  a  perfect  (on  the 
principle  that  what  has  often  happened  is  the  natural  tiling  to 

*  The  pupil  should  perhaps  be  warned  that  the  Romans  did  not  feel 
this  difTerenee  as  we  feel  it.  Otherwise,  they  would  probably  have  ex- 
pressed  it  by  a  difference  of  form. 


TENSES. 


263 


expect).  The  perfect  in  this  use  is  sometimes  called  the  gxomic 
perfect,  but  the  general  natuie  of  the  tense  in  these  cases  is 
so  evidently  perfect  that  a  special  name  seems  undesirable. 
Thus  :  — 

Avaritia  jiecuniae  studium  habet,  quam  nsmo  sapiens  con- 
cupivit,  greed  involves  a  zeal  for  money  which  no  wise  man 
desires*  (Sail.,  Cat.,11,  3)  ;  ob  debditdtem  animi  multi  pa- 
rentes,  mult'i  amlcos  nonnulli  patriam,  plerviue  autem  se  ipsos 
penitus  perdiderunt,  through  weakness  of  mind  many  utterly 
ruin  their  parents,  many  their  friends,  some  their  country,  and 
most  people  themselves  (Cic,  Fin.,  i.,  15,  49)  ;  non  domus  et 
fundus,  ndn  aeris  acervus  et  aurl  aegroto  domino  deduxit 
corpore  febres,  ndn  animo  curds,  not  houses  and  lands  nor  heaps 
of  coin  take  away  disease  from  the  ailing  body  of  their  owner 
or  care  from  his  mind  (Hor.,  Epuit.,  i.,  2,  47). 

464.  The  present  and  imperfect  are  often  used  of 
rej)eated  or  customary  actions,  and  of  attempted  or  in- 
tended actions.     Thus  :  — 

Cottidie  in  sendtum  venit  Cat  Ulna,  Catiline  comes  daily  to 
the  Senate;  haec  audiebant  (uited,  nunc  vident,  they  used  to 
hear  these  things  before,  now  they  see  them  ;  in  exsilium  eicie- 
bam  quem  iam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  videbam  ?  was  I  try- 
ing to  drive  into  exile  a  man  w^ho  I  saw  had  already  actually 
entered  upon  war  ?   (Cic,  Cat.,  ii.,  6,  14). 

465.  The  present  is  used  in  giving  the  statements  of 
past  writers  whose  works  are  still  extant ;  as  :  — 

Homerus  dicit  e  Nestoris  lingnd  melle  dulciorem  fiuxisse 
sermTmrm,  Homer  says  that  from  Nestor's  tongue  flowed  speech 
sweeter  than  honey. 

466.  The  present  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
historical  perfect  in  lively  narration,  to  make  a  more 
vivid  picture  (historical  present).     Thus  :  — 

Desiliunt  ex  eqms,  provolant  in  primum,  they  spring  from 
their  horses,  they  fly  to  the  front  (Liv.,  iii.,  62,  8). 

*  /.  <».,  none  ever  has  desired,   and  therefore  we  may  infer  that  none 
ever  will  do  so. 


264 


SYNTAX. 


467.  With  iam  dudum,  lam  diu,  iam  pridem,  and 
sometimes  without  these  words,  the  present  and  imperfect 
are  used,  where  in  Englisli  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  are 
preferred,  to  indicate  an  action  which  has  been  goin^  on 
some  time  and  is  still  going  on  (present),  or  which  at  a 
certain  past  time  had  been  and  was  still  going  on  (im- 
perfect).    Thus :  — 

Iam  diu  ignore  quid  agas,  I  have  long  been  in  ignorance  as 
to  how  you  are ;  tot  annus  helium  gero,  all  tliese  years  I  have 
been  waging  war ;  audiebat  iam  dudum  verbuy  he  liad  lieard 
the  words  for  some  time. 

468.  With  dum  (=  "  while  '')  the  present  is  regularly 
used  to  denote  an  action  going  on  at  the  same  time  as 
another,  even  when  the  two  actions  belong  to  past  time. 

Thus :  — 

Dimi  erjo  in  Sic'dia  sima,  nTdla  statua  delecta  est,  while  I 
was  in  Sicily  not  a  statue  was  overthrown  (Cic,  Verr.,  ii.,  6G,  IGI). 

Notp:.  In  the  meanings  "  until  "  and  "as  long  as,"  dum  takes  the  past 
tenses  for  past  actions.  Also  in  the  meaning  "  while,"  if  the  main  verb 
denotes  a  continued  action  or  state  (often  in  Livy  and  once  or  twice  earlier). 

469.  With  jmstquam  (^posfedquam),  "  after,"  and 
with  the  expressions  for  "  as  soon  as  "  —  uht,  uhi  primum, 
tit,  ut  prlmum,  cum  primvm,  sirmd  ac  (^simul  atque  or 
simid  alone),  —  the  perfect  is  the  regular  tense,  though 
the  pluperfect  would  seem  more  logically  exact.     Thus  :  — 

Sed  postquam  aspexi,  'died  cdgndv'i,  but  after  I  looked  at 
[it]  I  recognized  it  at  once  (Ter.,  Heavt.,  iv.,  1,  43) ;  Pom- 
peius,  ut  equitatum  suum  pulstim  vidit,  acie  excess  it,  as 
soon  as  Pompey  saw  his  cavalry  routed  he  withdrew  from  battle 
(Caes.,  B.  C,  iii.,  94) ;  cmn  primima  Rdmam  veni,  nihil 
pr ins  faciendum  mihi  putavi,  quam  tit  tihi  gratiilarer,  as  soon 
as  I  (had)  reached  Rome,  I  thought  it  my  first  duty  to  tender 
you  my  congratulations. 

a.  But  the  imperfect  is  used  if  a  situation  is  to  be  described  as 
a  continued  action ;  the  pluperfect,  if  as  the  result  of  an  action  ; 


TENSES. 


265 


as  : 


Ut  domum  reducebatur,  ^^  obviam  el  C.  Curio,  when  he 
was  being  escorted  home,  Gains  Curio  met  him ;  ut  ad  mare 
excubuerant,  accessere  hostes,  as  soon  as  they  had  got  their 
guard  posted,  the  enemy  drew  near. 

b.  Or  if  a  distinct  interval  of  time  has  elapsed  between  the 
event  introduced  by  postquam  and  the  main  event,  the  clause 
with  postq2ia?n  regularly  takes  the  j)luperfect ;  as  :  — 

Hannibal  anno  tertio  postquam  dmtw  profugerat  cum 
qtnnque  ndvibus  Africam  access  it,  in  the  third  year  after  he 
had  gone  into  exile,  Hannibal  went  to  Africa  with  live  ships 
(Nep.,  Han.,  8). 

Cf.  the  English  use  of  tenses  with  "  after  "  and  '*  as  soon  as" 

470.  Other  cases  where  a  different  tense  is  used  in 
Latin  from  the  one  which  English  would  lead  us  to  ex- 
pect are  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  In  letters  sometimes  an  imperfect  (or  historical  perfect) 
is  used  for  the  present,  or  a  pluperfect  for  a  perfect.  The 
writer  thus  puts  himself  at  the  time  when  the  letter  will  be  read 
(epistolary  imjK'rfect  and  pluperfect).     Thus  :  — 

j<^ih  it  habebam  quod  scriberem ;  neque  enim  novl  quic- 
quam  audiveram,  I  have  nothing  to  write,  for  I  have  heard 
nothing  new. 

(2.)  A  perfect  or  pluperfect  is  used  in  dependent  clauses 
(especially  with  cum,  si,  etc.)  indicating  a  customary  action  or 
event,  where  English  usage  would  lead  us  to  expect  a  present 
or  imperfect.*     Thus  :  — 

Cum  ad  vlllam  veni,  hoc  ipsum  nihil  agere  et  plane  cessdre 
vie  delectat,  when  I  come  to  my  country  seat,  this  very  doing 
nothing  and  absolutely  resting  delight  me  (Cic,  Or.,  2,  6)  ;  cum 
rosam  viderat.  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrahatur,  whenever  he  saw 
a  rose,  he  thought  spring  was  beginning  (Cic,  Verr.,  v.,  10,  27). 

(3.)  In  subordinate  clauses  depending  on  a  past  tense  and 
stating  something  which  was  true  at  the  time  mentioned  and  is 

*  Tlie  present  or  imperfect  in  the  main  clause  shows  the  repetition  of 
the  act,  and  tlie  subordinate  clause  is  regarded  more  directly  from  the  time 
of  the  main  claiLse  than  in  English. 


266 


SYNTAX. 


TENSES.  —  SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


267 


time 


still  true,  the  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  where  the  present 
might  be  expected.     Thus  :  —  • 

Pastum  animaiitibiis  large  et  cojudse  natura  einn  (pi'i  culqne 
aptiis  erat  comparavlt,  nature  generously  and  abundantly  pre- 
pared for  the  animals  that  food  which  was  suited  to  each 
(Cic,  N,  />.,  ii.,  47,  121);  vide,  rie,  cum  omnes  rectae  animl 
aJfectioties  virtutes  adpellentur,  non  sit  hoc  proprlum  7iOmen 
omnium^  sed  ab  ea,  quae  Una  ceteris  excellebat,  omnes  ndini- 
natae  slnt,  see,  lest,  while  all  right  dispositions  of  the  mind  are 
called  virtues,  this  name  does  not  |>roperly  belong  to  all,  but  all 
are  named  from  the  one  which  in  itself  surpasses  all  the  others 
(Cic,  Tusc,  ii.,  18,  43). 

(4.)  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  surprise  at 
something  just  discovered,  though  it  has  been  going  on  for  some 
as  :  — 

Ehea,  pater  ml.  tn  hlr  eras?  ah!  father,  you  here?  Cf. 
also  the  pluperfect,  haud  aspexeram.  I  didn't  see  [you]  (Ter., 
Ad.,  373). 

(5.)  1  he  y;^/;/bf^  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  future  per- 
fect to  indicate  vividly  what  will  happen  if  something  else  hap- 
pens (as  if  it  had  already  hapj)ened).     Thus  :  — 

[^Brutus']  SI  cdnsercatus  erlt,  vicimus,  if  Brutus  shall  be 
saved,  we  have  conquered  (Cic,  Fam.,  xii.,  6,  2). 

471.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  what  has 
been  the  ease,  but  is  so  no  longer.     Thus  :  — 

Fuimus  Troes,  we  are  no  longer  Trojans  (Verg.,  Aen.,  ii., 
325)  ;  trlste  enim  est  nomen  ips^im  carendl  fpiia  stlhicitur  haec 
vis :  habuit  ndn  hahet,  for  the  very  word  "  deprivation  "  is 
melancholy,  because  the  meaning  *•  had  but  has  no  longer" 
underlies  it  (Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  36,  87). 

a.  In  a  few  verbs  the  perfect,  ])luperfect,  and  future  perfect 
have  acquired  the  meaning  of  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future 
of  a  kindred  verb.  Thus  :  7idsco,  find  out ;  ywi-l^  know  (i.  e., 
havt'  found  out).     So  odi  =  I  hate,  meminlz=  I  remember. 

Note.  The  tensps  in  Latin  are  used  in  p^eneral  with  much  greater 
exactness  than  in  En^'^lish,  and  the  Iloni.ins  were  particularly  fond  of  the 
future  perfect  tense. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Note.  In  its  original  shape  in  the  Indo-European  the  sub- 
junctive seems  to  have  been  a  teiise  rather  than  a  mood,  having 
about  the  meaning  indicated  by  the  English  "•  am  going  to." 
This  meaning  soon  broadened  so  as  to  include  that  kind  of  in- 
determinate futurity  involved  in  the  ideas  which  we  express  by 
*'  may,"  "  could,"  ''  would,"  etc.  It  is  this  quality  in  the  mood 
as  we  find  it  in  Latin  which  explains  the  absence  of  special 
future  tense  forms,*  and  which  is  also  at  the  bottom  of  the  dis- 
tinction which  grew  up  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indica- 
tive ;  namely,  that  while  the  indicative  represents  a  thing  as  a 
fact  of  the  past,  present,  or  future,  the  subjunctive  came  to  mark 
a  thing  as  something  conceived  in  the  mind  merely  {L  e.,  as 
something  which  might  or  would  be  a  fact,  if  the  thinker's  idea 
should  be  reahzed).  This  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity  is 
more  or  less  distinctly  traceable  in  the  four  uses  of  the  subjunc- 
tive in  Independent  Sentences.     (See  472-475.) 

Subjunctive  ix  Ixdepexdext  Sextexces. 
Hortatory  Subjunctive. 

472.  The    hortatory    subjunctive   expresses  (1)  an 

EXHORTATION  or  ENTREATY  ;  (2)  a  COMMAND  or  PROHI- 
BITION ;  (3)  an  obliCwATION  ;  (4)  a  concession.  The 
negative  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Meminerinius  et'iam  adversus  Infinws  iustitiam  esse 
servanda m.  let  us  remember  that  justice  must  be  observed  even 
towards  the  humblest  (Cic,  Off.,  i.,  13,  41). 

(2.)  Vlrlhus  utare,  dum  adslnt,  cum  absint,  ne  requiras, 
use  your  strength  while  it  lasts,  but  when  it  is  gone  do  not  pine 
for  it  (Cic,  Sen.,  10,  33)  ;  suum  quisque  noscat  ingenium,  let 
every  one  study  his  own  temperament ;  donls  impii  ne  ptacare 
audeant  deds,  let  not  the  impious  venture  to  try  to  propitiate 

*  If  it  was  desirable  to  giiard  apaiast  a  possible  ambig-uity.  or  to  empha- 
size distinctly  the  notion  of  futurity,  the  Romans  used  periphrastic  forms 
(facturus  sim,  essem^  etc). 


< 


2G8 


SYNTAX. 


the  gods  with  gifts  (Cic.) ;  nihil  incominodo  valetudinis  tuae 
feceris,  do  nothing  prejudicial  to  your  health  (Cic). 

(3.)  Ut  hmmst,  ita  viorem  geras,  you  must  regulate  your 
conduct  by  tlie  character  of  your  master  (i.  e.,  like  master,  like 
man)  (Ter.,  Ad.,  431);  qnue  h'lc  erant,  curares,  you  shoukl 
have  looked  out  for  what  weie  here  (Ter.,  Her.,  230)  ;  ne 
poposcisaes,  you  should  not  have  asked  (Cic,  Att.,  ii.,  1,  3). 

(4.)  Sed  ierit  ad  helium,  dissenserit  iwn  a  te  sdlujn, 
verum  etiain  a  fratribus  :  hi  te  orant  tuJ,  but  grant  that  he 
went  to  the  war,  that  he  took  the  other  side  not  only  from  you 
but  also  from  his  brothers  :  they  —  and  they  were  on  your  side 
—  beg  you  [to  spare  him]  (Cic,  Z/y.,  1:^,35);  ne  sint  in 
senectute  vires:  ne  postulantur  quidem  vires  a  senectute, 
suppose  there  is  no  strength  in  old  age:  neither  is  strength 
demanded  from  old  age  (Cic,  Sen.,  11,  34)  ;  decies  centena 
dedisses  huic  pared  panels  contentd,  suppose  you  had  given 
this  frugal  fellow  whose  wants  are  few  some  million  or  so 
(Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  3,  15). 

a.  The  singular  of  the  second  person  of  the  present  tense 
is  not  used,  until  after  Livy's  time,  for  commands,  exhortations, 
ov  prohibitions,  unless  the  subject  is  indefinite  (/.  e.,  "you"  = 
**  any  one  ").     (Cf.  the  examples.) 

h.  In  the  perfect  tense  the  second  person  is  used  in  com- 
viands  and  exhortations  only  when  they  are  negative  (/.  e.,  when 
they  are  reaWy  prohibitions).  The  im]>erative  is  used  for  posi- 
tive commands,  etc     (See  527.) 

c.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  differ  from  the  present  and  im- 
perfect respectively  only  in  the  greater  precision  which  comes 
from  the  notion  of  completed  action,  but  even  this  distinction  in 
the  case  of  the  present  and  perfect  is  almost  intangibly  subtle. 

d.  Commands,  exhortations,  entreaties,  and  prohibitions  natu- 
rally occur  only  in  the  primary  tenses  (present  and  perfect). 

OptatlTe  Subjunctive. 
473.  The  oi^ATiVE  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a 
wish,    sometimes   alone,    sometimes    with   utinam   or  ut^ 
"  O  that !  "     The  ne^fative  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 


SUBJUNCTIVE   IN    INDEPENDENT   SENTENCES.        269 

Valeant  elves  vim,  sint  incolnm'es,  sint  he^tl,  may  my 
countrymen  prosper  in  safety  and  happiness  (Cic,  Mil.  34, 
93)  .  ne  vivam  si  scio,  may  I  die,  if  I  know  (Cic,  Att.,  iv., 
IG)  •  faUns  utinam  vates  sim,  oh,  may  I  prove  mistaken  in  my 
pn.phecyl  (Llv.,  xxi.,  10,  10);  utinam  F.  CBdius  viveret, 
would  that  Publius  Clodius  were  living  !  (Cic,  Md.,  38,  103)  ; 
Utinam  me  mortuum  vidisses,  would  that  you  had  seen  me 
dead  (Cic,  Q.  Fr.,  i.,  3,  l). 

a  The  present  and  perfect  imply  nothing  as  to  the  fulfillment 
of  the  wish,  but  the  perfect  is  chiefly  confined  to  early  Latin 
and  the  poets.  The  imperfect  implies  the  non-fulfillment  of  the 
wish  in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  in  past  time. 

h  Utinam  or  ^d  is  almost  always  used  when  the  ten#e  is 
imperfect  or  pluperfect.  These  particles  tend  to  give  more  for- 
mality or  solemnity  to  the  expression  of  the  wish. 

c  Sometimes  instead  of  the  simple  subjunctive,  vellm,  n'olim, 
mdlim,  veUem,  ndUem,  mallem.  or  cuperem,  is  used  with  the 
substance    of   the  wish  added  in  the  infinitive  or  subjunctive. 

Thus :  — 

Tiuim  mild  dan  velim,  Cotta,  eloqnentiam,  I  wish  your  elo- 
quenco  mi.ht  be  given  me,  Cotta  (Cic,  .Y  D  u.,  59,  147; 
veUem  adesse  posset  Panaetius,  would  that  Panaetius  could 

be  here  now. 

NOTF  Here  velim,  nollem,  etc,  are  potential  subjunctives  (see  474). 
F<!rr;  dependent  s^biunctive  (like  posset  in  the  second  example),  see 
491. 

Potential  Subjunctive. 

474      The  potential  subjunctive  is  used  to  express 
the  shades  of  poss^hility  ^nd  kindred  ideas  indicated  in 
Eno-lish   by   an   unemphatic    "  may,"    ^'  might,      '  can 
" could,"  or  "  would."     The  negative  is  iion  {haud,  etc.). 

Thus :  — 

II  Ir  quaerat  quispiam,  at  this  point  some  one  may  ask  (Cic, 
N  D  ii.,  58,  133)  ;  Flatonem  nee  nimis  valde  nee  nimts 
saepe  laudaveris,  you  cannot  [could  not]  praise  Plato  too  highly 
or  too  often  (Cic,  Le^/g.,  iii.,  1,  l)  ;  hSc  sine  Tdla  dMatwn^ 


270 


SYNTAX. 


confirmaverim  eloriuentiam  rem  esse  omnium  difficillimam, 
this  I  would  venture  to  assert  witliout  any  hesitation,  that  elo- 
quence is  the  hardest  thine,  in  the  world   [to  acquire]   (Cic 
J^rut.,  6,  25)  ;  itaque  baud  facile  discerneres  utrum  impl 
r^^torian  ex^rcit^^^  ^^^  ^^^1^^   ,^^^  J 

teU  whether  he  [Hannibal]  was  dearer  to  the  general  or  to  the 
ariny  (Liv.,  xxi.,  4,  3)  ;  uFdla  profecto  alia  yens  tanta  vwle 
cladis  non  obruta  esset,  any  other  nation  would  have  been 
buried  beneath  such  a  mass  of  disaster  (Liv.,  xxii.,  54,  10). 

«.  The  primary  tenses  are  used  when  the  situation  referred 
to  IS  present,  the  secondary  tenses  when  a  past  situation  is  in- 
volved. The  distinction  between  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  present  and  imperfect  on  the  other  is  the 
same  as  in  the  hortatory  use  of  the  subjunctive.      (See  472   c  ) 

/>.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  often  used  to  put  a  statement 
mildly  for  courtesy's  sake,  and  is  then  called  by  the  special 
name  Subiunct'Loas  modest iae.     Thus  : 

Pace  tua,  patria.  dixerim,  with  your  permission,  O  my 
country,  I  would  say  (Cic,  Mil.,  38,  103)  ;  baud  sciam  an,  I 
could  not  tell  whether  (Cic,  TUsc,  iii.,  24,  55;.  Cf.  also  the 
tliirtl  example,  above  (cdnflrmaverim), 

c.  The  second  person  singular  of  a  general  subject  ("you  "  = 
*'  one,'^  "  anybody  ")  is  especially  common  :  as  :  - 

Quern  neque  gloria  neque  perleula  excitant,  nequlquam  hor- 
tere.  him,  whom  neither  glory  nor  danger  rouses,  you  will  ex- 
hort in  vain  (Sail.,  Cat.,  oS,  2).  Cf.  also  the  second  example, 
above  (laudaveris).  ^ 

d.  If  the  potential  idea  is  to  be  brought  out  emphaticallv,  the 
verbs  possum,  can,  and  licet,  may,  are  used.  Witli  the^e  and 
sinnlar  verbs,  as  dehed,  oportet,  etc.,  and  with  adjectives  of  like 
meaning  used  with  sum,  sometimes  also  others,  the  i.nlicative  is 
otten  used  where  a  potential  subjunctive  might  be  expected.  The 
potential  ,<lea  is  here  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  meaning  of 
the  word  used.     Thus  : 

Perturbatidnes  animorum  poteram    mdrhds  appellare  sed 
non  convenlret  ad  omnia,  I  might  call  disturbances  of  the  soul 


SUBJUNCTIVE   IN   INDEPENDENT   CLAUSES.  271 

diseases,  but  [the  word]  would  not  apply  to  all  cases  (Cic,  Fin., 
iii.,  10,  35) ;  quanto  melius  fuerat,  in  hoc  prom-issum  patris 
ndn  esse  servatum,  how  much  better  it  would  have  been  in  this 
case  for  the  father's  promise  not  to  have  been  kept  (Cic,  Off., 
iii.,  25,  94)  ;  fuit  tanti,  jniM  crede  :  haheres  quod  defeyideres, 
it  would  have  been  worth  the  price,  believe  me ;  you  would  have 
some  defense  ;  possum  persequi  perniulta  oblect  amenta  re  rum 
rusticarum,  sed  ea  ipsa,  quae  dlxl,  sentio  fuisse  longidra,  I 
might  tell  of  very  many  delights  of  farming,  but  I  feel  that 
what  I  have  said  has  itself  been  rather  long  (Cic,  Sen.,  16,  55)  ; 
longum  est  ea  d'lcere  ;  sed  hoc  breve  d'lcajn,  it  were  a  long 
task  to  say  that,  but  tliis  I  will  say  briefly  (Cic,  Sest,  5,  12). 

Note.     The  present  indicative  is  thus  often  used  where  in  English  the 
past  potential  is  preferred,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

Dubltatlve  Subjunctive. 

475.  The  DUBiTATivE  subjunotive  is  used  to  put  a 
question  for  rhetorical  effect,  where  no  answer  is  ex- 
pected.    Thus  :  — 

Quid  faciam,  what  can  I  do?  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  1,  24); 
quid  facerem,  what  could  I  do  ?  (Verg.,  Ec,  i.,  40)  ;  quid 
hoc  homine  faciatis,  what  would  you  do  with  such  a  man  ?  sed 
quaero  a  te,  cur  C  Comelium  non  defenderem,  but  I  ask 
you,  why  should  I  not  have  undertaken  the  defense  of  Gains 
Cornelius  ?  (Cic,  Vat.,  2,  5)  ;  eg5  te  oidere  n5luerim,  I  un- 
willing to  see  you  ? 

a.  The  present  (or  future)  applies  to  a  present  situation,  the 
imperfect  and  (rare)  perfect  to  a  past  situation.  Further- 
more, in  questions  in  positive  form  the  present  implies  doubt 
simply,  the  imperfect  implies  that  no  other  course  than  the  one 
adopted  was  natural  or  possible.  Questions  in  negative  form 
im])ly  that  the  doubt  suggested  is  too  preposterous  to  consider. 
(Cf.  the  examples.) 

Note.     The  potential  and  dubitative  subjunctives  may,  of  course,  oc- 
cur in  dependent  clauses,  especially  in  indirect  questions.     Thus  :  — 

Hue  spatio  plura  facinora  in  se  victi  edidcrunt  quam  infesti  edidissent 
victores,  during  this  time  the  conquered  performed  more  hostile  acts  against 


272 


SYNTAX. 


themselves  than  an^ry  conquerors  would  have  done  (Llv.,  xxxi  IS  «V 
pudet ;  nee  quui^^^m  neque  quid  huic  respondeam  scio,  I  am  ashamed 
and  know  not  what  to  do  or  what  a^iswer  to  give  him  (Ter,  .1,/,  485) 

Cf.  also  the  Constructions  of  Indirect  Discourse,  514  tf. 

For  Concessive  Dependent  Clauses  see  478-430. 


Subjunctive   ix   Depexdext   Clauses. 
Conditional  Sentences. 

Note.     The   clause   eont^iiningr   the   condition  proper   {i.  e.,  the  "if'» 
clause)  IS  called  the  pkotasis,  the  otlier  clause  U.e  apodosis  or  conclu- 

476.  (1.)  The  INDICATIVE  is  used  in  (.omlitional 
sentences  to  denote  what  is,  was,  or  will  be  true,  if  some- 
thing else  IS,  was,  or  shall  be  true. 

(2.)  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  is  used  in  conditional  sentences 
to  denote  what  would  be  or  would  have  been  true,  if 
something  else  were,  should  be,  or  had  been  true. 

a.  With  tlie  in.Iicative,  therefore,  the  supposed  .ase  is  treated 
as  a  fact,  as  to  the  existence  of  wliich  the  sj.eaker  or  writer  is 
uncertain ;  with  the  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  su,^ 
posed  case  is  treated  as  something  merely  assumed  for  argu- 
ment;  witl.  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  supposed 
case  is  treated  as  not  a  fact. 

b.  The  perfect  subjunctive  differs  from  the  present  only  in 
marking  completed  action.  The  imperfect  refers  to  present 
time  or  to  a  state  or  continued  action  in  tlie  past ;  the  pluperfect 
to  past  time. 

Note.     The  indicative  implies  notlunff  a,,  to  the  reality  of  the  protasis 

granted  The  pnmary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  in  represeutinfr  the  case 
Ibrif  """"""'•  *""'  """  "  ''  ""^  ■■•'•'-'•  •""  '""«•"«  "'"l-'S  <»  to  iti 
ence  to  the  future  they  do  not  mark  the  case  as  distinctlv  impossible      The 

;:ob;bt   "tuf.T'"""*''^'-^'^-  ''-*  ''  -  -P-"""  or  even  m. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


273 


477.    Indicative. 

Si  id  facis,  hodle  postre- 
viur/i  Tiie  vides,  if  this  is  what 
you  are  doing  you  see  me  to- 
day for  the  last  time  (Ter., 
And.,  322). 

Quid?  si  tyrannidem  oc- 
cttpare,  si  patriam  prodere 
conabitur  pater,  silebitne 
fii'uis  ?  again,  if  a  father  at- 
tempt to  make  himself  ruler 
unconstitutionally,  if  he  try  to 
betray  his  country,  will  the  son 
keej)  silent  about  it  ?  (Cic,  Off., 
iii.,  23,  90). 

Si  onihX  bona  re  pyblica 
frill  non  licuerit,  at  carebo 
mala,  if  I  may  not  enjoy  a 
good  government  I  shall  at 
least  not  live  under  a  bad  one 
(Cic,  MIL,  34,  93). 

Rationem  antiqui  philo- 
sophl  se?it£ntiae  suae  rion  fere 
reddebant,  nisi  quid  erat 
nu  meris  a  at  description ib us 
explicandum,  the  i)hilosophers 
of  old  were  not  in  the  habit 
of  giving  an  account  of  their 
opinions  unless  they  had  to  ex- 
plain something  by  arithmetic 
or  geometry  (Cic,  Tiisc,  i.,  17, 
38). 

Sir  a  gam :  si  quid  veiiale 
habuit  Heius,  si  id,  qitantl 
aesfimahat,  tanti  vendidit, 
desin5   quaerere  cur  cmeris, 


Subjunctive. 

Ego  si  Scipionis  deside- 
rio  me  moverl  negem,  men- 
tiar,  if  I  should  say  that  I  was 
not  affected  by  a  longing  for 
Scipio,  I  should  lie  (Cic,  -4?m., 
3,  10). 

Si  gladitim  quis  apud  te 
sand  me?ite  deposuerit,  re- 
petat  tnsaniens,  reddere  p)ec- 
cdtum  sit,  if  anybody  should, 
being  in  sound  mind,  put  a 
sword  into  your  keeping  and 
demand  it  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
it  would  be  wrong  to  return  it 
(Cic,  Off\,  iii.,  25,  95). 

Si  aut  collegam,  id  quod 
mdllem,  tui  similem,  L.Aemi- 
11,  haberes,  auttu  collegae  tui 
esses  similis,  sitpervacdnea 
esset  ordtid  mea,  if  you  had, 
as  I  should  prefer,  a  colleague 
like  yourself,  Lucius  Aemilius, 
or  if  you  were  like  your  col- 
league, my  words  would  be  su- 
perfluous (Liv.,  xxii.,  39,  l). 

Nunc  quemadmodiim  au~ 
diar  sentid,  at  tum  si  dice- 
rem,  7idn  audirer,  I  see  how 
attentively  I  am  listened  to 
now,  but  if  I  had  spoken  then 
I  should  not  have  been  listened 
to  (Cic,  Clu.,  29,  80). 

Si  Metelll  fidel  diffisus 
essem.  iddicem  eum  ndn  re- 
tinuissem,  if  I  had  distrusted 


272 


SYNTAX. 


themselves  than  anjifry  conquerors  would  have  done  (Liv.,  mi.,  IS  g)  • 
pudet ;  nee  quid  agam  neque  quid  huic  respondeam  scio,  I  am  aLhJned 
and  know  not  what  to  do  or  what  answer  to  ^ve  him  (Ter.,  Ad.,  4«6  ) 

Cf.  also  the  Constructions  of  Indirect  Discourse,  514  If. 

For  Concessive  Dependent  Clauses  see  478-480. 


SuBjuxcTivE   IX   Dependent   Clau 
Conditional  Sentences. 


SES. 


Note.  The  clause  containingr  the  condition  proper  (i.  «.,  the  '*if " 
clause)  is  called  the  protasis,  the  other  clause  the  apodosis  or  conclu- 
sion. 

476.  (1.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  conditional 
sentences  to  denote  what  is,  was,  or  will  be  true,  if  some- 
thing else  is,  was,  or  shall  be  true. 

(2.)  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  is  used  in  conditional  sentences 
to  denote  what  would  be  or  would  have  been  true,  if 
something  else  were,  should  be,  or  had  been  true. 

a.  With  the  indicative,  therefore,  the  supposed  case  is  treated 
as  ^fact,  as  to  the  existence  of  which  the  speaker  or  writer  is 
uncertain ;  with  the  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  sup- 
posed case  is  treated  as  something  merely  assumed  for  argu- 
ment; with  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  supposed 
case  is  treated  as  not  a  fact, 

b.  Tlie  perfect  subjunctive  differs  from  the  present  only  in 
marking  completed  action.  The  imperfect  refers  to  present 
time  or  to  a  state  or  continued  action  in  the  past ;  the  pluperfect 
to  past  time. 

Note.  The  indicative  implies  nothing  as  to  the  reality  of  the  protasis, 
but  ASSERTS  the  reality  of  the  apodosis,  if  the  reality  of  the  protasis  be 
panted.  The  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  in  representing-  the  case 
as  merely  assumed,  hint  that  it  is  not  actual,  but  indicate  nothing  as  to  it« 
probabdity  or  even  possibility,  except  that  in  so  far  as  they  involve  a  refer- 
ence to  the  future  they  do  not  mark  the  case  as  distinctlv  impossible.  The 
secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mark  the  case  distinctly  as  not  actual, 
and  are  the  only  tenses  that  can  be  used  when  the  supposed  case  is  impos- 
sible,  althou-h  they  do  not  themselves  mark  it  as  impossible  or  even  im- 
probable.    Thus :  — 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


273 


477.      iNDICATrVE. 

Si  id  facts,  hodw  postre- 
mum  me  vides,  if  this  is  what 
you  are  doing  you  see  me  to- 
day for  the  last  time  (Ter., 
And.,  322). 

Quid  ?  si  tyrannidem  oc- 
cupare,  si  patriam  prodere 
conabitur  pater,  silebitne 
fUlus  ?  again,  if  a  father  at- 
tempt to  make  himself  ruler 
unconstitutionally,  if  he  try  to 
betray  his  country,  will  the  son 
keep  silent  about  it  ?  (Cic,  Off", 
iii.,  23,  90). 

Si  mihX  hond  re  publicd 
frui  7idn  licuerit,  at  carebo 
9nald,  if  I  may  not  enjoy  a 
good  government  I  shall  at 
least  not  live  under  a  bad  one 
(Cic,  Mil.,  34,  93). 

Rationem  anttqui  philo- 
sophl  sent^ntiae  suae  non  fere 
reddebant,  nisi  (pad  erat 
numer'is  aut  descrlptidnibus 
erpUcandum,  the  philosophers 
of  old  were  not  in  the  habit 
of  giving  an  account  of  their 
opinions  unless  they  had  to  ex- 
plain something  by  arithmetic 
or  geometry  (Cic,  Tnsc,  i.,  17, 
38). 

Sir  agam :  si  quid  vendle 
habiiit  Heius,  si  id,  qnanti 
aestiindbat,  tanti  vendidit, 
desino   quaerere  cvr  cmeris. 


ScBJUNCTrVE. 

Ego  si  Scipionis  deside- 
rio  vie  moveri  negem,  men- 
tiar,  if  I  should  say  that  I  was 
not  affected  by  a  longing  for 
Scipio,  I  should  lie  (Cic,  Am., 
3,  10). 

Si  gladium  quis  apud  te 
Sana  mente  deposuerit,  re- 
petat  Insaniens,  reddere  pec- 
cattim  sit,  if  anybody  should, 
being  in  sound  mind,  put  a 
sword  into  your  keeping  and 
demand  it  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
it  would  be  wrong  to  return  it 
(Cic,  Off\,  iii.,  25,  95). 

Si  a^it  collegam,  id  quod 
mdllem,  tul  similem,  L.Aemi- 
11,  haberes,  aut  tu  collegae  tul 
esses  similis,  supervacdnea 
asset  ordtio  mea,  if  you  had, 
as  I  should  prefer,  a  colleague 
like  yourself,  Lucius  Aemilius, 
or  if  you  were  like  your  col- 
league, my  words  would  be  su- 
perfluous (Liv.,  xxii.,  39,  l). 

Nunc  quemadmodum  au- 
diar  sentio,  at  tum  si  dice- 
rem,  non  audirer,  I  see  how 
attentively  I  am  listened  to 
now,  but  if  I  had  spoken  then 
I  should  not  have  been  listened 
to  (Cic,  Clu.,  29,  80). 

Si  Metelll  fldei  diffisus 
essem.  iudicem  eum  non  re- 
tinuissem,  if  I  had  distrusted 


274 


SYNTAX. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


275 


I   will   put  it  in  this  way  :   if  the  honor  of  Metellus,  I  should 

Heius  had  anything  to  sell,  and  not  have  retained  him  u])on  the 

if  he  sold  it  for  as  much  as  he  jury  (cf.  Cic,  Verr.,  Act  1,  31 ). 

asked,    I   stop    inquiring    why  J^Jrfjd  ego  nisi  peperissem, 

you  bought  it  (Cic,  Verr.,  iv.,  Roma    non    oppugnaretur  ; 

5^  10).  nisi  f  Ilium  haberem,  libera 

Vet    officio,     si    quid    de-  in  I'lbera  pat  rid  naortua  es- 

buerat,    irel   errdrl,    si    quid  sem,  therefore,  if   I   had  not 

nescierat,    satlsfactum    esse  been    a  mother,  Rome    would 

duxit,  he  thought  lie  had  met  not  be  under  siege  ;    if    I  did 


all  the  demands   of  allegiance     not  have  a  son,  I  should  have 
if  he  had   owed  any,  and  had     died  in  freedom  in  a  free  coun- 
made  good  his  error  if  through     try  (Liv.,  ii.,  40). 
ignorance    he    had    made    any 
(Cic,  JJelof.,  5,  13). 

a.  The  idea  of  non-fulfillment  is  not  inherent  in  the  secon- 
dary tenses  of  the  subjunctive  themselves.  This  idea  comes 
from  the  feeling  that  the  past  is  settled  and  irrevocable,  and 
thus  when  a  supposed  case  is  referred  to  the  past  there  is  a 
much  stronger  feeling  that  the  real  state  of  the  case  was  dif- 
ferent than  when  a  su])j)osed  case  is  referred  to  the  present 
or  future.  It  occasionally  ha})pens,  however,  that  a  supposition 
is  thrown  into  the  past  without  any  implication  as  to  its  fulfill- 
ment, and  then  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are 
still  used  in  Latin.     Thus  :  — 

Si  conlibuisset,  ab  ovo  usque  ad  mala  citaret  "  Id  Bac- 
chae^'  if  the  fancy  had  seized  him,  he  would  shout  ''  Ho !  Bac- 
chants," till  he  dropped  *  (Hor.,  Sat,,  i.,  3,  6). 

h.  The  distinction  between  the  ])rimary  and  secondary  tenses 
as  to  the  implication  of  non-fulfillment  had  not  yet  become 
fully  established  in  the  times  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  the 
present  in  their  plays  sometimes  occurs  of  unfulfilled  conditions. 
Thus  :  — 

*  Literally,  from  the  e«^  to  the  apples,  t.  f.,  from  beginning;  to  end. 
Cf.,  in  English,  "  from  the  soup  to  the  fruit  course." 

For  the  much  commoner  occurrence  of  tliis  use  in  Indirect  Discourse 
(real  or  implied),  see  516. 


, 


Admm:  vam  si  absim,  ha^ul  recusem,  quin  miht  male 
sU.  .id  rmnm.  I  am  here,  for  if  I  were  away.  \^-f-^^^^ 
no  objection  to  its  going  hard  with  me.  my  honey  (Plant.,  Cure, 
164)  ;  tU  8i  If,.'  sis,  aliter  sentias.  if  you  were  m  my  shoes, 
you  would  feel  differei.Uy  (Ter.,  And.,  310). 

e  With  verbs  like  possum,  debeo,  licet,  etc.,  and  other  ex- 
pressions which  in  themselves  denote  necessity,  possibihty, 
power,  duty,  and  the  like,  the  indicative  (imperfect  perfect, 
'or  pluperfect)  is  regularly  used  in  classical  D.tin  m  the  apodc^ 
sesrf  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  where  with  other  verbs  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

(?«orf  esse  caput  debebat,  si  probdri  posset,  and  this 
oult  to  be  the  main  point,  if  it  could  be  proved  [as  it  can.^t] 
(Cic.  Fm.,U.,23);  si »7mm  diem  morati  essetis,  morien- 
dum  ommbus  fuit,  if  you  had  delayed  a  single  .lay,  all  would 
have  had  to  die ;  si  miht  nondum  actus  vamtwnem  daret 
tamen  aequum  erat  me  dlm^ittJ,  if  my  age  did  not  yet  justify 
my  exen,ption  (as  it  does),  yet  it  were  just  that  I  should  be 

discharged. 

Cf.  ako,  under  Potential  Subjunctive,  474,  d. 

d  General  conditions  (t.  e.,  such  as  denote  what  repeat- 
edly  or  always  happens  under  certain  circumstances)  are  ex- 
pressed in  Latin  by  the  indicative,  except  in  the  two  following 

cases  *  '^— 

(1.)  The  protasis  has  the  subjunctive  in  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  when  the  subject  is  Indefimte  (i.  e., 
"  vou  "  =  "  any  one  "),  while  in  the  other  persons  the  indicative 
is  employed,  however  general  the  application  of  the  thing  said. 

Thus :  —  -       .  _     7  7_- 

[Mens  qnoqne  et  animus,-]nis.i  tamqnam   hnmm  oleum  in- 

stilles.  exstinffuuntur  senectute,  unless  you  drop  oil  into  the 

lam,,  of  the  mind  and  soul,  so  to  speak,  their  light  goes  out  in 

old  age  (Cic,  Sen.,  11,  36)  ;  but,  parvl  sunt  for^  arma,  nisi 

est  Lsilium  doml,  prowess  of  arms  abroad  is  of  itUe  worth 

unless  there  be  wisdom  at  home  (Cic,  Off-,  i.,  2-,  76). 

(2.)  If  the  general  condition  refers  to  the  past,  the  protasis 


276 


SYNTAX. 


has  the  imperfect  (or  pluperfect)  suhjunctive  In  the  Augustan 
poets  and  later  writers  of  both  verse  and  prose,  where  the  re- 
publican writers  use  the  indicative.     Thus  :  — 

Accusatores,  slfacultas  incideret,  poems  adficiehantury  the 
accusers  were  [in  every  case]  visited  with  punishment,  if  oppor- 
tunity offered  (Tac,  Ajin.j  vi.,  30)  ;  but,  si  quod  erat  grande 
vds  aut  mdius  opus  biventuTn^  laetl  adferebant^  if  any  large 
vase  or  considerable  work  of  art  was  found,  they  carried  it  to 
him  [VeiTes]  with  joy  (Cic,  Verr.,  iv.,  21,  47). 

Note.  The  subjunctive  in  ease  (2)  is  a  prmluct  of  Greek  inf^nce. 
It  will  be  seen  that  in  both  (1)  and  (2)  the  apoclosis  has  the  indicative. 
(Cf.  also  508,  and  510,  1.) 

e.  The  protasis  may  be  implied  in  some  other  form  of  expres- 
sion.    Thus  :  — 

Roges  7w^,  qurdem  naturam  deontm  esse  ducanu  nihil  for- 
tasse  respondeam,  ask  me  what  I  think  the  nature  of  the 
gods  is,  and  I  shall  perhaps  have  no  answer  to  make  (Cic,  N. 
Z>.,  i.,  21,  57) ;  nam  absque  te  esset,  hod  is  nuTnquam  ad 
sulemoccasum  viverem,  for  had  it  not  been  for  you,  I  should 
never  have  lived  to  see  the  sun  set  to-day  (Plant.,  3/e^?/?.,  1024) ; 
non  viiht,  nisi  admonito,  venisset  in  vientem,  I  should  not 
have  thought  [of  it]  unless  reminded  (Cic,  de  Or.,  ii.,  42, 
180)  ;  nsmo  umquam,  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis,  se 
pro  patrid  of  ferret  ad  mortem,  no  one  would  ever  expose  him- 
self to  death  for  his  country  without  a  great  hope  of  immortal 
glory  [such  as  he  now  has]  (Cic,  Tffsr.,  i.,  15,  32). 

Note.  In  the  development  of  languagje  coordinate  sentences  were  earlier 
than  the  subordinate  constructions.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  such  a  sen- 
tence as  the  first  example  under  «.  It  is  but  one  step  from  roges  me, 
nihil  respondeam,  to  si  me  rog6s,  nj"^i7  respondeam.  The  protjisis  in  all 
subjunctive  conditions  was  in  this  way  developed  from  the  hortatoi^  sub- 
junctive, while  the  apodosis  ^ew  from  the  potential  use,  the  two  being  col- 
lateral offshoots  from  the  original  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity. 

/.  So  one  form  of  expression  may  be  used  in  the  protasis,  an- 
other in  the  apodosis  ;  and  shades  of  meaning  are  thus  some- 
times indicated,  especially  by  the  poets,  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
tained in  an  English  translation.     Thus  :  — 


V. 


-■ 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  -  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES.   277 

At,ne  adeo,  slfacere  possixn,  jn^as  P-Ji^f  and  in  fact 
filial  affection  prevents,  supposing  I  could  do  it  (Plaut.,  F^., 
tmZtnseh  curru  Lunar,,  mr,cere  tem.tat,  et  faceret, 
S;"  a  rep,.U.  sonent.  incantation  tries  to  d.-aw  down  the 
11  .0.  Jcariot.  and  wonld  do  it  if  the  ...  as  re^not 
beaten  till  the  echo  [prevented]     Tib.,  '-'J*- '*'  ,        ^^^ 

a  share    von  n.i-ht  take  half  home  (PL,   Tr„r     n..  -.    -)  , 

r^^Zslvana  oestra  auHontas  <ul  pleben.  est.  I  should  won- 

Tvt  vour  influence  counts   for   nothing   witli   the   commons 

Ltv     iii     2 14    ;  si  ipsa  ratl3  minns  perficiet,  ut  rnorten. 

2ile  Jean..,  if  Reason  herseH  does  -^  "f «  ^  -^^J^ 
ferent  to  death,  yet  the  exper  ence  of  ^^f^T^-^;^^ 

to  havelived  quite  long  ^^^"r^T:,'-;^,Xan^s, 
delirids   tuas  CaUdlo,  nei  sint   iniepiaiw      i  {^      ^_ 

velles  dlcere  nee  tac^re  posses,  you  would  wan  to  el  C^^^^^^^^ 
lus  of  your  love,  Flavins,  and  could  not  keep  sdent  unless  she 
be  sordid  and  not  very  nice  (Cat.,  6,  iff). 

Concessive  Clauses. 

478  With  si,  St  maxime,  etn,  tmnetsl,  etiam  st,  con- 
cessive' clauses  take  the  indicative  or  -l;i "-*'-!»; J/^ 
precisely  the  same  circumstances  as   conditional   clauses 

with  sT.     Thus :  — 

SCBJUNCTPVE. 
ISDICATIVE. 

Tn    quihcs     si    m>deratw         SI  haec  non  ge.^a,  _^ndn^ 

'''"^:rrt°L^  '  t:%  Sr.'even  if  you  were  not 

Ty^/rt  rrrJenness  of  listening    to    these    "d^^^^ 

character   which    our    consuls  events  «l-«"'f  •  ^"  "f  ^^"^ 

are  wont  to  have,  yet  they  had  ing  at  them  delineated  in  col 

an  impressive  dignity  of  man-  or,  yet   you   could   teU  wh  ch 

ner  (Cic,  PT..,  11,  24).  was    the    one    who        d    the 

Nam  Si  egS  drgna  hue  con.  snare  (C.c,  Mil.,  20,  54). 


278 


SYNTAX. 


tiimelld  sum  maxume,  at  tii 
indif/mis,  qui  faceres  tamen, 
for  even  though  I  deserve  this 
insult  ever  so  much,  yet  you 
were  not  the  one  to  put  it 
upon  me  (Ter.,  Eun.y  866). 

Caesar,  etsi  nojiduTn  eoruiri 
consilia  cognoverat,  tamen 
ex  ed,  quod  obsldes  dare  inter- 
iniserant^  fore  id^  quod  acci- 
dit,  suspicabatur,  although 
Caesar  had  not  yet  discovered 
their  designs,  yet  from  the  fact 
that  they  had  neglected  to  send 
the  usual  hostages,  he  began 
to  sus})ect  what  proved  to  be 
the  case  (Caes.,  B.  G.^  iv.,  31). 

Tametsi  statim  vlcisse  de- 
beo,  tamen  de  meo  lure  de- 
cedam.  although  an  immediate 
victory  is  rightfully  mine,  I 
will  retire  from  my  right 
(Cic,  Bosc.  Am.j  27,  73). 

Quod  rrehro  [^qiiis^  indet, 
71071  miratur,  etiam  si  cur 
flat  nescit,  what  one  sees  fre- 
quently he  does  not  marvel  at, 
even  if  he  does  not  know  its 
cause  (Cic,  Du\,  ii.,  22,  49). 

Etiam  si  quid  scrlbds  non 
habebis,  scrlbitd  tamen,  even 
though  you  (shall)  have  no- 
thing to  write,  nevertheless 
write  (Cic,  Fam.,  xvi.,  26.2). 

JSlam  ista  Veritas  etiam  si 
iucunda  non  est,  mikt  tamen 
grata   est,  for   that  truth,  al- 


Neque  enim,  si  maxime 
statuae  deiectae  essent, 
eas  egS  vob'is  possem  iacent?s 
ostenderey  for  even  if  the  sta- 
tues were  altogether  scattered 
upon  the  ground,  I  could  not 
show  them  to  you,  as  they 
lay  there  (Cic,  Verr.,  ii.,  68, 
164). 

Etsi  nihil  aliud  Sullae 
nisi  consulatum  abstulisse- 
tis,  tamen  eo  contentos  vds 
esse  oportebat,  though  you 
had  taken  nothing  else  from 
Sulla  than  the  consulship,  yet 
you  ought  to  be  satisfied  with 
that  (Cic,  SulL,  32,  90). 

Sed  tametsi  iatn  ita  con- 
stituisses,  ut  abesse  perpetud 
nudles  quam  ea,  quae  nolles, 
videre,  tamen  id  cogitare  de- 
beres,  but  although  you  had 
already  made  uj)  your  mind  to 
stay  away  forever  rather  tlian 
see  what  you  would  rather  not 
see,  yet  you  ought  to  bear  this 
point  in  mind  (Cic,  Fam.,  iv., 
7,4). 

Etiam  si  nobilitatimi 
n5n  sit,  tamen  honestum  sit, 
quodque  vere  dlcimusy  etiam 
si  du  nillld  laudetur,  ndturd 
esse  lauddbile,  even  though  it 
should  not  be  stamped  as  noble, 
yet  it  would  be  worthy  of  re- 
spect and  a  thing  which  we 
truly    call  praiseworthy  in   its 


CONCESSIVE   CLAUSES. 


279 


.    •.  •     „nT.lpasant    I  am     nature,    even    though    no   one 
^*479    Concessive  clauses  are  'also  inti^ducccl  l.y  licet,  ut, 

'''^sSTio  srr^th  rr;.  u.e ..  s...... 

%  ^  Clauses  with  quamq^cam  take  the  indicative  in 
eWal  Latin,  the  s,!bi«nctive  late.,  while  clauses  w^ 
gu.n.vls  take  the  subjunctive  in  classical  Latm  and  the 
indicative  later.*     Thus :  — 


Ikdicative. 
Brmanl,  quamquam  Ifi- 
nere  et  prodio  fessl  erant, 
tamen  Metello  Instructl  inten- 
fique  oboiam  proceditnt,  al- 
though the  Romans  were 
wearv  with  the  march  and  the 


Subjunctive. 
Sed  omnia  licet  concur- 
rant,  Id  us  Mdrtiae  conso- 
lantur,  but  though  aU  [hor- 
rors] should  unite  against  me, 
yet  the  15th  of  March  is  a 
consolation    (Cic,    Att.,    xiv., 


hattle,   yet    they    went    forth     4,2)^  ^^.^^^ 

against  MeteUu«  dra«-n  up  -     J^  ^^  ,,,.,,^. 

good   order  and  on  the  alert     ru^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^.^^ 

(Sail.,  Ivo.  A  5).  ^^^  ^^^„  ^,,„„g,,  he  had 

Quamquam     m     «^",;r      J  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^.^    ^^^^ 

vestrum  summum  esse j^,^    «-^^  ^^  ^^.^,^, 

tamen  twee,  quae  sunt  ^n  spe-     have   kno«n    v 

<>- ^-''«-  '^ff '  t'TLt    '  Quamquam   enim    sintt 
Vina   s,n,t,    although    I   have         «  ,,^^,,^    ,„,„,„ 

seen  in  both  of  you  very  grea      .^J^  ^^_^  ^^^^^.  ^^  ^,^. 

ability   and   zeal,   yet   m   this  ^^ 

,„at  Jr  of  beauty  of  style  you     patet,iov  ^'-J 1,  yet   this 

T  •        in\n     dp.     m    some    misioiiuuc,  j^^ 

Or.,  1.,  -'y,  Ui).  .  J.    ,. 

t  In  this  and  the  few  other  cases  m  i„fl„enced  by  the 

.  ,„a„„„a»,  clause,  tl-  «ubp.nct.      »    ^   "^  ';^^^,^^„„.) 
ccacessive  character  of  the  sentence.     \S^t 


280 


SYNTAX. 


Quamvis    est    enim    om-    reaching   import  (Cic,   Tusc, 
nis   hyperbole    Tdtra   f'lnem,     v.,  30,  85). 


non  tamen  esse  debet  vltm 
modiim,  for  although  all  hy- 
perbole means  overstepping 
the  line,  yet  it  should  not  go 
beyond  all  bounds  (Quint, 
viii.,  6,  73). 


Quamvis  sis  molestus, 
nunquam  te  esse  cdnjitebor 
7nalum^  for  although  you  are 
annoying,  I  will  never  admit 
that  you  are  bad  (Cic,  ITise.y 
ii.,  25,  61). 


Note.  The  concessive  clauses  with  quamvis  and  ut  are  of  hortatory 
origin,  quamvis  meaninj;^  "however  much,"  and  ut,  "  how ;  "  licet  is  really 
an  impersonal  verb,  and  the  subjunctive  was  at  first  a  coHrdinate  potential 
subjunctive  (cf.  491)  ;  quamquam  introduces  regularly  something  granted 
to  be  a  fact,  and  therefore  naturally  has  the  indicative. 

a.  Quamvis,  in  its  earlier  meanings  "  however,"  "  as  much  as 
you  please,"  etc.,  is  used  to  modify  some  particular  adjective  or 
adverb,  and  then  has  no  effect  upon  the  mood  of  the  verb. 
Thus  :  — 

Quasi  vera  rniht  difficile  sit,  quamvis  multds  ndminatim 
proferre,  just  as  if  it  would  be  hard  for  me  to  mention  by  name 
as  many  as  you  please  (Cic,  Rose.  Am.,  16,  47)  ;  doctorum  est 
ista  cdnsuetndd  ewpie  Graecorum,,  ut  els  ponatur  de  quo  dispu- 
tent  quamvis  subitd,  it  is  the  professional  philosophers,  and 
that,  too,  Greek  ones,  who  have  that  habit  of  letting  a  subject  be 
proposed  to  them  for  discussion  however  suddenly  (Cic.  Am.^ 
5,  17). 

So,  quamvis  licet  Insectemur  Stoicos  metuo  jie  soli  philoso- 
ph'i  sint,  for  though  we  attack  the  Stoics  as  much  as  you  jilease, 
I  fear  they  are  the  only  real  philosophers  (Cic,  Tusc,  iv., 
24,  53). 

b,  Quamquam  and  etsi,  often,  tametsi,  rarely,  are  used  with 
independent  sentences  to  add  a  sort  of  correction  to  what  has 
been  said,  as  is  done  in  English  by  ''  and  yet."     Thus  :  — 

Quamquam  quid  opus  est  in  hoc  philosopharJ,  and  yet, 
what  need  is  there  of  philosophizing  on  this  subject?  (Cic, 
Tusc,  i.,  37,  89)  ;  harum  duannn  condicidnum  ?iunc  utram 
Trmlls  vide  ;  etsi  cdusilium,  quod  ctpj,  rectum  esse  et  tutum 


CLAUSES   OF   CONCESSION,   AND  OF  COMPAKISON.      281 

scio  now  see  wl.ich  of  these  two  proportions  you  prefer ;  and 
yeX  Via.,  which  I  have  formed  I  know  .s  sound  and  safe. 

^''r-i^lr;«L,«,  and  ,™i.  are  used  rarely  in  elassieal 
wrHefs  hut  very  commonly  in  Tacitus  and  the  later  authors 
rr- aUhougir  in  English),  with  pa.ticiples  e..  and  .nam. 
Inam  also  with  adjectives,  without  any  verb.      1  hus  .  - 

Onu  re  omnl  ratmie  esse  interdiu pernm  peml uni ;  etsi  ali- 

Z.n,u7n petant,  capl  posse,  [that]  therefore  on  all  accoun  s 
le    mit  hreak  through  by  daylight,  and   fjfj:^^'^ 
might  be  experienced,  yet  with  the  nuun  body  of  the  a,  my  un 
Tu  t,  the  ,,lL  they  were  making  for  could  be  ^^^^^ 

mns  ,  an»«  adversns  tot  vuicrones  pmfut^ro.n  he  [<-alba]  pu 
on  a  canvas  breastplate,  though  perfectly  wel    aware    hat  .t 
n  L  of  little   use   a'-ainst   so   many  sword  points  (Suet., 

i;  teLe  instituta.  I  not  be,  in  the  first  1'  -,  on  P  - 
pey-s  side  whatever  his  design,  and  afterwards  ""  f  "^^^   J 
Sough  they  had  not  managed  their  course  w.th  discretion. 

(Cic,  Att.,  ix.,  6,  4). 

For  Concessive  clauses  .ith  Relative  Pronouns,  see  500.^2,  6. 

''  "     Cum  ^■*-"'  "* 

■Mr   1^    1.  "    'i04 

"   Clauses  of  Proviso  with  Bum,  Modo,  etc., 

ouuses  with  Particles  oJ  Comparison. 

481  (1.)  Clauses  of  comparison  take  the  indicative 
when  the  comparison  is  simply  stated  as  a  fact. 

f  2.  They  Lke  the  subjunctive  when  the  con.pa"son  - 
put  as  a  Jppo.e.l  ease.  SI  is  then  usually  .added  to  the 
particle  of  comparison ;  as,  tamquam  «,  quasi,  ut  si,  veM 
SI,  ac  St.     Thus :  — 


282 


SYNTAX. 


Indicative. 

lllud  te  horto)%  ut.  tam- 
quani  poetae  bon'i  solent,  sic 
tu  in  extrema  parte  vianerls 
tin  dlli(jentlssimus  sis,  this  I 
urge  upon  you :  just  as  good 
poets  are  in  the  habit  of  doing, 
so  do  you  exercise  especial 
care  in  the  last  part  of  your 
task  (Cic,  Q.  Fr.,  i.,  1,  46). 

Quasi  puma  ex  arbor  i- 
hus,  crUda  si  sutitj  vix  evel- 
luntur,  si  matUra  et  cocta^ 
deciduntj  sic  vltam  adulescen- 
tibus  vis  anfertj  as  fruit  when 
unripe  is  torn  with  difficulty 
from  its  tree,  but  when  it  is 
fully  ripe  falls,  so  force  is  neces- 
sary to  take  away  life  from  the 
young  (Cic,  Sen.,  19,  71). 

Est  Ita,  ut  dicitur,  it  is  as 
it  is  said  to  be. 

llaec  sicut  exposui,  ita 
gesta  sunt,  these  things  took 
l)lace  as  I  have  set  forth  (Cic, 
Mil.,  11,  30). 

Ut  sementem  feceris,  ita 
metes,  as  thou  sowest,  so  shalt 
thou  reap  (Cic,  de  Or.,  ii.,  65, 
261). 

Longe  alia  ndbls  dc  tfi 
scripseras  nuntiantur,  the 
accounts  told  me  are  far  other 
than  you  wrote  (Cic,  Att.,  xi., 
10,  2). 

Pergrdtuin  vi'iJu  feceris, 
si  quemadmodum  soles 
de   ceteris    rebus   cum   ex  te 


Subjunctive. 

ll'ru  m  horn  ines  corruptl 
superb  id  ita  aetdtem  agunt, 
quasi  rostros  honores  con- 
temnant;  ita  hos  petunf, 
quasi  honeste  vixerint,  but 
men  have  become  S])oiled  by 
arrogance  and  conduct  them- 
selves as  if  they  scorned  your 
offices,  but  sue  for  i\wn\  as  if 
they  lived  respectable  lives 
(Sail.,   lug.,  85,    19). 

Qui  quasi  sua  res  aut 
honos  agatur,  ita  dlligenter 
Sex.  Naevl studio  et  cupiditdti 
indreni  gerunt,  who  devote 
themselves  to  accomplishing 
the  zealous  and  ea-jfer  desires 
of  Sextus  Nae\ius  with  as 
much  energy  as  if  their  own 
interests  or  honors  were  at 
stake  (Cic,  Qulnc.,  2,  9). 

Tajitus  ^^a^r^s  inetus  de 
suvimd  rerum  cepit,  velut  si 
iam  ad  portds  host  is  esset,  as 
great  a  fear  for  the  govern- 
ment seized  upon  the  senators 
as  if  the  enemy  were  already 
at  the  gates  (Li v.,  xxi.,  16,  2). 
At  accusat  C.  Cornell  fl- 
lius,  et  id  aeqne  valere  debet, 
ac  si  pater  indicaret.  but 
the  son  of  Gains  Cornelius  is 
the  accuser,  and  that  ought  to 
have  as  much  weight  as  if  the 
father  were  giving  testimony 
(Cic,  SulL,  18,  51). 

Tamquam     clausa     sit 


CLAUSES   OF   COMPARISON,    AND  OF  PURPOSE.      283 

auaeritur,  sic  de  a^nJcUia  d!s-  Asia,  stc   nihil  perfeHnr  ad 

'ZL     nid  sentUU,   I  shall  ^^^ -/.-^  ^^J  ^r:;: 

le  very  much  obliged  to  you  if  completely   as    if    Asia    ^^ere 

Lll  us  what  you  think  blockade.l  (Co.,  i-Um.,  xu..i»). 
you  ^^""''^.7/  ^^,„,  ut  si  bono  animi  fecis- 
„bout  fnenclship,  m  Uie   sa„^  _^   ^^^^.  ^^^^    ^._ 

W1V  vou   are  wont  to  aisstusa     «'='"  .,       -^  -a 

Ithe/  topics,  when  you  are  nu,.  he  [Ages.laus  pras^ 
iked  about  them  (Cic,  Am.,  their  scheme  just  -«  '«  ^hey 
**  had    acted    with    good    mteii- 

'^"  ^^>'  tions  (Nep.,  Iocs.,  C,  2). 

„    I„  suhinn,.tive  clauses  of  cou.parison,  if  the  supiK,sed  com- 
..  to  the  present  (or  future),  the  prmiavy  tenses 
parison  ajjplies  to  tne  presenv  v  /  ,,,.,.fppt  and 

are  used  ;  if  to  the  past,  the  secondary  ten.es.      1 ''«  1   '    ^    ^"^ 
«hn,erfect  indicate,  of  course,  compkte,l  action.     Occa..onaUj , 
ol     r  til  imperfect  is  used  referring  to  present  tm.e,  when 
1::  comparison   involves   something  impossible  or  very  unnat- 

ural,  as  in  the  fourth  example  above. 

.,   r^        _  ■' »i,~„  "  see  498,  and  516,  f. 
For  Comp-arative  Clauses  with  Q«am  =     than,     see  «   , 

Clauses  ol  Purpose  (Final  OUnses). 

482   The  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE  is  introduced  :-- 
(1  )  By  the  conjunctions  ul,  that,  and  nc,  that  not,  les 
(o  easioSuy  ut  J).     To  connect  two  clauses  o    purpose 
;-ere  («.«)  is  «sed  for  "  and  not     as  well  as      or  not 
"  nor."     Thus  :  — 

Esse  oportet  ut  vivas;  ««»  .«'e-  ^t  ^^as  -«  must  eat 
in  order  to  live,  not  live  in  order  to  eat  <^^'^;;^ 
28  39)  ;  ne  ./-«»  'eius  adoentus  promd  sigmfieatw  mt,  that  no 
•  !iica!i;n  of  lis  arrival  may  be  macle  at  a  ''>r- ^^^  J  J^ 
vi    29) ;   exeUauda  est  dUigentia,  ut  ne  quid  ^^^Ole'jenUr 

.       ,.^  ,„.  our  eneroT  so  as  to  do  nothing  cave- 
agamus,  we  must  rouse  up  our  energy  w  „i;„iiein 

lessly  ;  ut  retera  e..npla  relinquam  neve  --- j'f  ^ 
5„T  ]n.u,U  nominem,  to  leave  examples  torn  old  times  and 
yet  not  name  any  of  the  living  (Cic,  Sest.,  4M01).      _ 

(2.)  By  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb ;  as,  qm,  nnde, 

etc.     Thus :  —  t       •* 

Ea  qui  conflceret  Gaium  Treironium  legatum  rehuTut, 


284 


SYNTAX. 


he  leaves  his  lieutenant  Gaius  Trebonius  to  attend  to  these 
things  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  vii.,  11)  ;  scrlbebat  tamen  oratldnes  quas 
alll  dicerent,  yet  he  used  to  write  speeches  for  others  to  deliver 
(Cic,  Brut.,  50,  206)  ;  hominl  natura  rationem  dedit,  qua  re- 
gerentur  anivii  adpetitus,  to  man  Nature  has  given  reason,  to 
govern  the  desires  of  the  mind  (cf.  Cic,  ^V.  JJ.,  ii.,  12,  34)  ; 
quasi  lam  d'tvlnarein,  id  quod  accidit,  Hid  exst'nictd,  fore  unde 
discerem  uemlnem,  as  if  I  already  had  a  presentiment  of  what 
proved  to  be  the  case,  that  after  his  death  there  would  be 
nobody  from  whom  I  could  learn  (for  me  to  learn  from)  (Cic, 
Sen.,  4,  12)  ;  hahebam  qu5  confugerem,  I  had  a  refu<re  to 
flee  to  (Cic,  Fam,,  iv.,  6,  2)  ;  locuvi,  ubi  consistat  reper'ire 
noil  jjoterlt,  he  will  not  be  able  to  find  a  place  in  which  to 
make  a  stand  (Cic,  Qul/ic,  1,  5). 

Note.  Ut  represents  the  purpose  in  a  general  way  as  the  purpose  of  the 
action  indicated  by  the  main  verb  ;  the  i-elative  connects  the  purpose  par- 
ticularly with  some  word  in  the  main  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Cldvem  cepit  Ut  idnuam  recluderet,  he  took  the  key  to  open  the  door. 
Clavem  cepit  qua  iunuam  reduderet,  he  took  the  key  to  open  the  door 
with. 

(3.)  Especially  by  quo  (in  the  sense  of  rtt  eo),  if  the 
purpose  cdaiise   contains  a  comparative.*      Thus :  — 

hirltant  ad  pvgnandum.  quo  fiunt  acriores,  they  goad 
them  on  to  battle,  to  make  them  the  fiercer  (Varr.)  ;  llbertate 
usiis  est,  qu5  impunius  dicax  asset,  he  used  his  freedom 
to  bluster  the  more  safely  (Cic,  Qulnc,  3,  11). 

a.  When  the  clause  upon  which  the  purpose  clause  depends 
stands  first,  it  often  contains  some  word  or  j)hrase  like  ideo, 
idcirco,  eo  cons  Hid,  hoc  animd,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  purpose 
clause ;  as  :  — 

Leffibiis  denique  idcirco  ornnes  servimus,  ut  llberl  esse 
possimus.  to  the  laws,  in  short,  we  are  all  slaves,  but  only  on 
this  account,  namely,  to  secure  the  possibility  of  freedom  (Cic, 
Clu.,  53,   146)  •,  Qo  ad  te  animo  venimus,  ut  de  re  pTddica 

*  Quo  is  very  rarely  used  if  there  is  no  comparative,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  ut  is  occasionally  used  where  there  is  a  comparative. 


CLAUSES   OF   rUKPOSE. 


285 


esset  silentium,  with  this  purpose  we  have  come  to  you,  that 
we  might  cease  thinking  and  talking  about  the  government  (Cic, 
Brut.,  3,  11). 

b.  When  the  purpose  belongs  to  the  present  (or  future)  the 
present  subjunctive  is  used  ;  when  it  belongs  to  the  past,  the 
imperfect  is  used.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  are  in  the  nature 
of  the  case  uncommon,  representing  a  purpose  as  completed  in 
tlie  present  or  past  respectively. 

c.  But  the  clause  of  purpose  sometimes  depends  upon  an  idea 
of  saying  implied,  instead  of  upon  the  main  verb  of  the  sentence 
expressed.     Thus  :  — 

Sed  ut  hie,  qui  intervenit,  me  intuens,  ne  ignoret,  quae 
res  agatur,  de  liatura  ageMmus  deorum,  but  that  our  friend 
who  has  just  come  in  —  and  he  glanced  at  me  —  may  not  be  in 
the  dark  as  to  the  subject  of  our  discussion,  we  were  discussing 
the  divine  nature  (Cic,  N.  D.,  i.,  7, 17).  Ne  ignoret  indicates  the 
purpose  of  making  the  remark,  not  the  purpose  of  the  discus- 
sion. 

d.  Of  similar  character  is  the  use  of  nedum  introducing  a 
subjunctive  clause  where  we  say  -  not  to  mention,"  "  still  less," 
etc.     Thus  :  — 

Satrapa  si  siet  amutor  numxpiam  svfferre  eius  sUmptus 
queat,  nedum  ^7  possis,  if  her  lover  were  a  governor  he  could 
never  stand  her  extravagance,  stiU  less  can  you  (Ter.,  HeaiU., 
454). 

Note.  Ut.  as  well  as  qui,  ubl  etc.,  is  in  origin  a  relative,  so  that  all 
these  clauses  of  purpose  are  really  of  tl.e  same  nature.  Their  develop- 
ment  mav  be  illustrated  thus :  — 

He  sends  a  boy ;  he  will  or  would  say,  (or)  let  him  say. 

He  sends  a  boy  who  will  say,  (or)  who  is  to  say. 

He  sends  a  bov,  that  he  may  say,  (or)  <o  say.  ,      j-     +« 

The  Enjrlish  exhibits  the  coordinate  construction  beside  the  subordinate 
in  the  expressions  "  come  and  see  me,"  "come  to  seejne." 

For  other  constructions  of  purpose,  see  as  follows : 

Gerunds  and  Gerundives  :  551,  and  552,  2. 

Future  Participle  (rare) :   545,  a. 

Supine  (with  verbs  of  motion) :   554,  2. 

(Poetical)  Infinitive  :   536. 


286 


SYNTAX. 


Clauses  of  Result  (Consecutive  Clauses). 
483.  The  subjunctive  of  result  is  introduced :  — 
(1.)  By  ut^  that,  ut  non^  that  not.     Thus :  — 
Non  is  es,  Catirina,  ut  te  pudor  uinquam  a  turpltudlne 
revocarit,  you  are  not  such  a  person,  Catiline,  that  shame  has 
ever  kept  you  from  a  base  deed  (cf.  Cic,  Cat.,  i.,  9,  22) ;  trmlt'is 
grorrlhns'me  volnerihvs  confectus,  ut   iain   se   sustlnere  non 
posset,  worn  out  with  many  serious  wounds,  so  that  now  he 
could  no  longer  hold  himself  up  (Caes.,  B,  G..  ii.,  25). 

(2.)  By  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb,  qui,  etc. 
Thus  :  — 

Ne7nd  est  tain  senex,  qui  se  annum  non  putet  jwsse  vivere, 
no  one  is  so  old  that  he  does  not  think  he  can  live  a  year  (Cic, 
Sen.,  7,  24) ;  quis  tarn  fait  'did  tempore  ferreus,  qui  non  illo- 
ruvi  aetdte,  ndhiUtate,  miserid  commoveretur,  who  was  so 
iron-hearted  then,  that  he  was  not  influenced  by  their  age,  their 
high  birth,  and  their  pitiable  condition?  (Cic,  Verr.,  v., 46,  121). 

(3.)  Especially  by  qinn  (equivalent  to  the  nominatives 
qm,  quae,  quod,  etc.,  with  non),  when  the  main  clause 
contains  or  implies  a  negative.     Thus  :  — 

Nrdlast  tain  fac'dts  res,  quin  difficilU  siet,  quom  invltus 
facias,  nothing  is  so  easy  that  it  is  not  hard  when  you  do  it 
against  your  will  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  805)  ;  numquam  accedo,  quIn 
ahs  te  abeam  doctior,  I  never  come  to  you  without  going  away 
richer  in  knowledge. 

a.  The  clause  of  result  is  generally  foreshadowed  in  the  main 
clause  by  some  word  like  ita,  sic,  tarn,  is,  talis,  tantiis,  adeo. 
(Cf.  the  exam})les.) 

b.  When  clauses  which  seem  to  be  result  clauses  have  ne  or 
ut  7ie,  it  is  because  the  thing  said  is  looked  at  rather  as  an 
intended  effect  (purpose)  than  as  a  result  (accomplished  effect). 
Thus  :  — 

Utroque  tempore  ita  me  gessl  ne  tibX  pudorl,  ne  regyw  tuo, 
ne  fjentl  Macedonum  essem,  on  both  occasions  I  so  conducted 


CLAUSES   OF   RESULT. 


287 


mvself  as  not  to  bring  discredit  upon  you  or  your  kingdom,  or 
upon  the  Macedonians  as  a  people  [i.  e.,  it  was  my  aim  not  to, 

etc.]  (Liv.,  xl.,  15,  6). 

NoTF  As  in  the  case  of  purpose  clauses,  the  relative  clause  of  result 
is  an  earlier  development  than  the  ut  clause.  This  development  began  as 
an  independent  apodosis  with  an  implied  protasis  in  some  such  fashion  as 

this :  — 

This  is  a  very  simple  thing :  you  would  easily  see  it. 
This  thing  is  so  simple  :  it  is  one  which  you  would  easily  see. 
This  thing  is  so  simple  that  you  would  easily  see  it. 
This  thing  is  so  simple  that  it  causes  no  trouble.* 

Starting  thus  with  the  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity  inherent  in  the 
subjunctive,  the  result  clause  tends  to  pass  from  the  supposed  case  to  an 
actual  case.  In  this  process  the  subjunctive  loses  more  and  more  of  its 
modality,  and  gains  correspondingly  in  definiteness  of  tense,  so  that :  - 

c.  In  pure  result  clauses,  unlike  the  other  dependent  clauses 
thus  far  treated,  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  seem  to  acquire 
the  same  distinctness  of  temporal  quality  which  the  indicative 
has.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  perfect  subjunctive,  as  can 
be  seen  in  examples  like  the  following  :  — 

Expulsus  regno  tandem  aliquando,  Mithriddtes  tantum 
tamen  consilio  atque  auctdritdte  valuit  ut  se  rege  Armenio^ 
rum  adifmctd  Jiovis  oplhus  copusque  renovarit,  driven  at 
last  out  of  his  kin-dom,  Mithridates  was  still  so  effective  with 
his  schemes  and  iiiHuence  that  he  renewed  his  means  and 
troops  by  winning  the  king  of  the  Armenians  as  an  ally  (Cic, 

Mfir.,  15,  33). 

Note  1.  How  far  the  Romans  were  conscious  of  a  substitution  of  tense 
force  for  mood  force  in  such  subjunctives  it  is  perhaps  impossible  to  tell. 
It  may  be  that  the  perfect,  through  derlot\r^s  completed  action  differs  in 
clauses  of  result  from  the  imperfect  in  the  same  way  that  the  English 
expressions  "  so  that  he  did  "  and  -  so  as  to  do  "  differ.  Compare  with 
the  example  just  given  the  following  from  the  same  oration  :  — 

Qui  rex,  sibt  aliquot  anws  srmptls  ad  conflrmandas  ratwnes  et  cdpids 
bell.,  tantum  spe  conatuque  valuit,  ut  se  Oceanum  cum  Panto  comuncturum 
putaret,  and  this  king,  having  taken  several  years  to  mature  his  plans 

*  Cf.  J.  B.  Greenough's  essay  on  The  Latin  Subjunctive,  pp.  l'^^-^"^ 
W.  G.  Hale's  "  Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin,"  American  Journal  of  Fhx- 
lology,  viii.,  1,  pp.  49  ff. 


288 


SYNTAX. 


and  streng^then  his  forces,  found  himself  so  powerful,  in  his  hopes  and 
ambitions,  as  to  fancy  tliat  he  was  going  to  spread  his  sway  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  ocean  (Cic,  Mur.,  15,  32). 

In  using  the  imperfect,  the  writer  seems  to  be  thinking  more  of  the  fact 
(expressed  by  the  main  verb)  which  pro<luces  tlie  result,  while  the  perfect 
calls  attention  rather  to  the  result  itself. 

Note  2.  This  difference  between  the  perfect  and  the  imperfect  sub- 
junctive can  perhaps  be  more  plainly  seen  by  comparing  a  clause  of  result 
with  a  clause  of  purpose.     Thus  :  — 

Result.  Inventus  est  scriba  qu'ulam  qui  corninun  oculos  confixerit, 
there  was  found  a  certain  clerk  who  beaided  the  lion  (lit.,  pierced  the 
eyes  of  the  crows)  (Cic,  Mur.y  11,25). 

Purpose.  Reperti  sunt  duo  equites  Romdnl  qui  te  istd  curd  liberarent, 
there  were  found  two  Roman  knights  to  free  you  from  that  auxiety  (Cic, 
Cat.,  i.,  4,  9). 

The  purpose  is  something  looked  forward  to  in  the  inihjinite  future, 
and  therefore  has  no  reference  to  a  particular  time  other  than  the  time  of 
the  main  verb ;  the  result  is  something  which  has  occurred  at  a  dejinite 
past  time,  and  therefore,  besides  its  reference  to  its  main  verb,  involves, 
like  the  indicative,  a  reference  also  to  the  time  the  thing  is  said.* 


Substantive  Clauses  with  Ut,  Ne,  Qoin,  QadminuB. 

484.  After  the  analogy  of  final  and  consecutive 
clauses,  subjunctive  clauses  introduced  by  lit  (and  nt 
non)^  ne  Qneve  or  neu^  and  vt  /le),  quln^  and  qudminui>^ 
were  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  variety  of  verbs, 
or  in  apposition  to  some  word  governed  by  them. 

485.  Clauses  analogous  to  final  clauses  are  thus  used 
depending  upon  several  classes  of  verbs  which  denote  an 
action  directed  to   the  future.     Such  clauses   are  called 

SUBfTANTIVE  or  OBJECT  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE.       ThuS  :  — 

486.  With  verbs  meaning  to  w^iSH,  ask,  beseech,  de- 
mand, DETERMINE,  DECREE,  ALLOW,  etc.  ;    as :  — 

Phaethon  optavit  ut  in  cumim  patris  toUeretur,  Pliae- 
thon  wanted  to  be  taken  up  into  his  father's  chariot  (Cic,  0//.» 

*  This  difference  exists,  of  course,  in  the  nature  of  the  case  itself,  and 
not  in  the  form  of  the  expression.  In  English  we  mark  the  difference  by 
the  mood  of  the  verb ;  the  Romans  failed  to  do  so,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  they  did  not  feel  the  difference. 


SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE. 


289 


iii.  25  94)  ;    Verves  rogat  et  orat  Doldhellam,  ut  ad  Nero- 
nem  proficiscatur,  Verres  asks  and  begs  Dolabella  to  visit  Nero 
(Cic,  Verr..  i.,  29,  72) ;  viilites  poscunt  pugnam,  postulant, 
ut    slgnam   daretur.    the    soldiers    caU    for   battle,    and    de- 
mand  that  the  Mgnal  be  given   (Liv.,   ii.,  45,  6)  ;    Galli  sta- 
tuunt,  ut  decern  mUia  hoininum  in  oppidum  mittantur,  the 
Gauls  determine  that  ten  thousand  men  be  sent  into  the  town 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  vii.,  21) ;  decrevit  senatus,  ut  L.  Opimius  vi- 
deret,  ne  quid  res  puhlica  detrlimnfi  caperet,  the  senate  de- 
creed that  Lucius  Opimius  should  see  to  it  that  the  state  suffered 
no  harm  (Cic,  Cat,,  i.,  2,  4)  ;  consall  permlssum  est,  ut  dv^ 
legiones  scriberet  novas,  the  consul  was  authorized  to  enroll 
two  new  legions   (Liv.,  xxxv.,  20,  4). 

487.  With  verbs  meaning  to  PROPOSE,  advise,  warn, 

URGE,  PERSUADE,  DIRECT,  COMMAND,  COMPEL,  etc.  ;   aS  :  — 

[Nesclsl  te  autem  ipsum  ad  populum  tulisse,  ut  qumtus 
praetered  dies  Caesari  tribueretur,  and  have  you  forgotten 
that  you  yourself  proposed  to  the  people  that  a  fifth  day  be- 
sides  should  be  assigned  to  Caesar?   (Cic,  FhiL,  ii.,  43,  lio)  ; 
posted  me,  ut  sihi  essem  Icgdtus,  ndn  solum  suasit,  verum 
etiam  rogavit,  afterwards  he  not  only   advised,^  but  even  re- 
quested  me  to  be  his  lieutenant  (Cic,  Frov.  Cons.,  17,  42)  ; 
monet,  ut  in  reliquum  tempus  omnes  suspicidnes  vitet,  he 
warns  him,  for  the  future,  to  avoid  all  suspicious  conduct  (Caes., 
B.  C;.,  i.,  20)  ;  Caninius  noster  me  tuts  verbis  admonuit,  ut 
scriberem  ad  te,  our  friend  Caninius  has  suggested  to  me  on 
your  behalf  that  I  write  to  you  (Cic,  Fain.,  ix.,  6,  l)  ;  Caesar 
mlims  cohortatus  est,  uti  suae  pristinae  virtutis  mejnoriam 
retinerent  neu  perturbarentur  animo,  Caesar   urged   the 
soldiers  to  hohl  fast  to  the  remembrance  of  their j)ia-time  valor, 
and  not  to  be  troubled  in  their  minds  ;  huic  mdgnls  praemus 
polUcitdtionihusque  persuadet,  uti  ad  hastes  transeat,  he 
persuades  this  man  by  promise  of  great  rewards  to  cross  over  to 
the  enemv's  lines  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  iii.,  18)  ;  servls  imperat,  ut 
s-e  .>«/;/neglegant,  flliam  defendant,  he  orders  his  slaves 
not  to  pay  any  attention  to  him,  but  to  protect  his  daughter 


290 


SYNTAX. 


(Cic,  Verr.,  i.,  26,  67)  ;  tenemus  enim  memoria  Q.  Catulum 
esse  coactum,  ut  vita  se  ipse  privaret,  for  we  remember 
that  Quintus  Catulus  was  forced  to  take  his  own  life  (Cic.,  de 
Or.^  iii.,  3,  9). 

488.  Substantive  clauses  of  purpose  are  further  used 
with  verbs  meauin^  to  ATTEND  TO,  LOOK  OUT  FOR,  STRIVE, 
TRY,  etc.  ;  as  :  — 

Cnra  ut  valeas,  see  that  you  keep  well  (Cic,  Ffnti.j  vii.,  5, 
3)  ;  videamus,  ut,  quidqulcl  acciderit,  fort  iter  feramus,  let 
us  see  to  it  tliat  we  bear  bravely  whatever  happens ;  qui  sta- 
dium currity  eniti  debet,  ut  vincat,  he  whj  runs  a  race 
ought  to  try  his  best  to  win  (Cic,  Off.,  iii.,  10,  42). 

489.  Many  of  these  verbs  are  also  used  with  an  infini- 
tive  clause.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Voldy  nolo,  vidlo,  cupio,  studeo,  always  ;  statud,  cdn- 
stitud,  decerno,  generally,  take  an  infinitive  (not  a  subjunctive 
clause)  when  there  is  no  change  of  subject.     Tims  :  — 

*S7  accelerare  volent,  ad  vesperaiti  consequent u r,  if  they 
are  willing  to  hurry  they  will  overtake  him  by  evening  (Cic, 
Cat.,  ii..  4,  6)  ;  simul  illorum  calannt'item  cnmmeniorandn 
augere  n5l6,  at  the  same  time  I  do  not  wish  to  increase  the 
misfortune  of  these  people  by  dwelling  upon  it  (Cic.  Ver.  Ac,  i., 
14)  ;  incormnoda  sua  iiostrls  committere  legihus  et  iudiens 
quam  dolorl  sun  permittere  maluerunt,  they  preferred  to 
leave  their  injuries  to  the  protection  of  our  laws  and  courts  rather 
than  base  action  upon  their  own  distress  (Cic,  Verr.,  \.,  32,  82)  ; 
statuerunt  id  secum  in  Syriam  reportare,  they  determined 
to  take  that  back  with  them  to  Syria  (Cic,   Verr.,  iv.,  28,  64). 

(2.)  Void,  nolo,  maid,  cupio,  have  often  also  the  infinitive 
even  when  the  subject  changes.     Thus  :  — 

An  omnls  tu  istos  vincere  volebas,  qui  nunc  tu  ut  vin- 
cas  tanto  opere  lahdrant,  or  did  you  want  to  have  all  these  gen- 
tlemen win  who  are  now  stru^s^ling  so  hard  to  have  you  win  ? 
(Cic,  Qulnct,  21,  69)  ;  tu  Syracusanos  diem  festum  Mar- 
cellls  impertire  noluisti,  you  were  unwilling  to  have  the 
people  of  Syracuse  celebrate  a  holiday  in  honor  of  the  Marcelli 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE. 


291 


(Cic  Verr  ii.,  21,  5i)  ;  rem  talem  per  alids  citius  quam  per 
se  tardius'coUcl  malebat,  he  preferred  to  have  a  matter  of 
this  kind  carried  out  quickly  by  others  rather  than  slowly  by 
himself  (Cic,  Sest.,  32,  70). 

(3.)  ,S/;io  always  (except  in  the  imperative),  and  i^a^ior  gen- 
erally, take  the  infinitive. 

(4.)  lubed  and  veto  regularly  take  the  infinitive  ;  so  also  m- 
per-o  and  postuld  when  the  verb  dependent  upon  them  is  passive 

or  deponent ;  as : — 

Caesar  qulnque  cohortes  de  nmlid  node  proficisci  impe- 
rat,  Caesar  orders  five  cohorts  to  set  out  about  midnight.  ^ 

490.  Several  of  these  verbs  take  the  subjunctive  if 
they  imply  a  command  or  request,  the  infinitive  if  they 
merely  introduce  a  statement.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Persuaded,  moned,  cdncedd.  etc,  with  the  subjunctive, 
mean  -  persuade,  warn,  allow  one  to  do  a  thing  ;  "  with  the  in- 
finitive, -  persuade,  warn,  grant  one  that  a  thing  ^s  so  and  so. 

(2  )  Words  like  dlcere,  scrlhere.  respondere,  nuntidre,  with 
the ''subjunctive,  mean  "  tell,  write,  etc,  one   to  do  so  and  so;" 

as  :  — 

Dicam  ^«7.s-,  ut  llhrum.  meum  describant  ad  te-jue  mit- 
tant,  I  will  tell  your  people  to  make  a  copy  of  >ny  book,  and 
send  it  to  you  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xii.,  17,  2). 

491.  Sometimes   the  subjunctive  has  no  introductory 

nt.     Thus :  — 

Visne  hitiir  hSc  prunvm  videamus,  do  you  %vish  then  that 
,ve  should  look  at  this  point  first?  malo  te  sapiens  hostu  me- 
tuat,  quam  xtultl  Mes  laudent,  I  would  rather  have  you  feared 
by  a  wise  enemy  than  praise.l  by  foolish  fellow-countrymen  ;  a  te 
poto,  m-e  abseniem  defendas,  I  beg  of  you  to  defend  me  m 
my  absence ;  Caesar  Commio  imperat  qvas  possU  adeat 
cinUat-es,  Caesar  orders  Commius  to  visit  such  states  as  he  can ; 
ha>ic  si  qui  iMrtem  putabit  esse  oratwnis,  sequatur  licebit, 
if  any  one  thinks  this  is  a  part  of  oratory,  he  may  follow  [Her- 
raagoras]  (Cic,  Inven.,  i.,  51,  97). 


292 


SYNTAX. 


So  with  vellm,  vellem^  malim,  etc.,  used  as  a  circumlocution 
to  express  a  wish.     (See  473,  c.) 

NoTK.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  that  in  these  cases  an  ut  is  omitted.  They 
are  survivals  of  the  old  coordinate  construction  before  the  ut  construction 
was  developed,  and  the  apparently  dependent  subjunctive  is  really  an  inde- 
pendent hortatory  or  potential  subjunctive. 

492.  After  verbs  and  expressions  which  denote  Feak, 
ANXIETY,  etc.,  the  subjunctive  with  ne  expresses  a  fear 
that  something  iclll  or  ma?/  happen  ;  with  we  non  (or  ut)^ 
a  fear  that  something  will  or  may  not  happen  (see  note 
below).     Thus  :  — 

Vereor,  ne,  du??i  mbiuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  I  am 
afraid  that,  wliile  wishing  to  lessen  the  labor,  I  sliall  increase 
it  (Cic,  Ler/.,  i.,  4,  12) ;  vldlt  periculum  esse,  ne  exutum 
iinpedi mentis  exercltum  liequlqiiani  incolumem  traduxisset, 
he  saw  there  was  danger  of  his  having  taken  the  army  safely 
across  to  no  purpose  if  stripped  of  its  baggage  (Liv.,  ix.,  18)  ; 
non  qu5  verear,  ne  tua  virtus  opinio nl  hominum  non  re- 
spondeat, not  that  I  am  afraid  that  your  merits  will  not  fulfill 
men's  expectations  (Cic,  Fain.,  ii.,  5,  2)  ;  veremur,  ne  forte 
non  alidruyn  vtilitutihiis  sed  propriae  laud'i  servisse  videa- 
mur,  I  am  afraid  that  I  may,  perha})s,  seem  to  have  been  work- 
ing not  for  the  interests  of  others,  but  for  my  own  glory ;  rem 
frumentariam^  ut  satis  commode  supportarl  posset,  timere 
[se]  dlcebantj  they  said  they  were  afraid  that  provisions  could 
not  be  conveyed  comfortably  and  conveniently  (Caes.,  B,  G.,  i., 
39). 

a,  Ut,  rather  than  ne  non,  is  used  by  the  comic  poets,  espe- 
cially with  timed,  nietuo,  and  paved,  and  by  Pacuvius  and  Ter- 
ence with  vereor.  Cicero  also  j)i*efers  ut  after  vereor  and  timed, 
and  Caesar  uses  it  after  tinned,  as  in  the  last  example.  Ne  ndn 
is  rare  in  the  comic  writers,  and  disappears  wholly  after  Cice- 
ro's time. 

b,  Vereor,  and  less  commonly  other  verbs  of  fearing,  when 
they  mean  "  afraid  to  do,"  take  an  infinitive ;  as  :  — 

Ah  !  vereor  cdram  in  ds  te  laudare  amplivs,  oh,   I  am 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE. 


293 


afraid  to  praise  you  any  more  thus  to  your  face    (Ter.,  Ad., 

c  The  verb  of  fearing  or  caution  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
lively  address  or  conversation,  the  subjunctive  clause  thus  sund- 
ing  alone  ;  as  :  — 

Ne  nimium  modil  .  .  .  tuos  iste  animus  aequos  subvortat, 
only  [take  care]  lest  that  easy-going  disposition  of  yours  upset 
us  too  completely  (Ter.,  Ad.,  835). 

Note.  Clauses  of  fearing  are  really  developments  from  the  hortatory 
or  the  optative  use  of  tJie  subjunctive,  and  thisori^n  explains  the  apparent 
contradiction  in  tlie  use  of  ut  to  express  -  that  not.         ihus  :  — 

metud;  ne  id  fiat  1   =    metud  ne  id  fiat. 
I  am  afraid  ;    \  ^^^^  \  it  not  happen    "    I  am  afraid  it  will  happen. 

metud;  ne  id  non  fiat!   =   metud  ne  id  non  fiat, 
metuo  ;  ut  id  fiat !    "    metud  ut  id  fiat. 
(let     M  it  not  fail  to  happen  1  "    I  am  afraid  it  will  not 
I  am  afraid  ;    \  ^^^^^  \  \  j^  happen  '  happen. 

493.  Substantive  clauses  of  purpose  often  passing  into 

result  are  used  :  — 

(1.)  AVitb  ne  {ut  iie)  or  without  a  particle,  after  words 
meaning  to  (juard  af/aln.Ht  ov  forbid.  Thus  :  — 

Cavendum  est,  ne  extra  modum  pr5deas,  you  must 
guard  aciainst  overstepping  the  limit  (Cic,  0#,  i.,  39,  140)  ; 
neqne  enim  est  interdictum  ant  a  rerum  ndtura  aut  a 
lerje  aliqua  atque  more,  ut  simjulls  hominibus  ne  amplius 
quam  simpdds  artes  ndsse  liceat.  for  neither  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  universe,  nor  by  any  statute  or  convention,  is  it  for- 
bidden that  one  man  shall  know  more  than  one  subject  (Cic, 
t/5Cr..i.,50,  215). 

a.  Cavere  means  properly  "  look  out  for,"  "  provide  for." 
Therefore  with  ne  it  means  "to  guard  against;"  and  with  nt 
*'  to  take  care  that."  Cave  without  a  particle  is  used  as  a  cir- 
cumlocution for  forbldduig.     Thus  :  — 

Cave  festlnes,  do  not  hasten  ;  cave  f axis,  don't  do  it. 

(2.)  With  ne  or  qubminus  (sometimes  also  qmn,  if  the 


294 


SYNTAX. 


main  clause  contains  or  implies  a  negative),  after  verbs 
meaning  to  oppose,  refuse,  hinder,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

FlTira  ne  scribam,  dolore  impedior,  I  am  prevented  by 
grief  from  writing  more  ;  Atticus,  ne  qua  sibf  statua  ponere- 
tur,  restitit,  Atticus  opposed  luiving  a  statue  set  up  to  him 
anywhere  ;  elsdem  de  causls  .  .  .  quominus  dlmicare  vellet, 
movebatur,  by  the  same  reasons  he  was  influenced  against 
wishing  to  fight  (Caes.,  B.  C,  i.,  82)  ;  Epamlndndas  von  recu- 
savit  quominus  ler/ls  poe7iam  subiret,  Eparainondas  did  not 
refuse  to  sutfer  the  penahy  of  the  hiw  (Nep.,  Ei>avi.,  viii.,  2) ; 
R7^(julus  sententlam  ne  diceret  recusavit,  Regidus  refused  to 
give  an  opinion  (Cic,  Off.,  iii-.  27,  100)  ;  non  j)ossu?nus,  quin 
alll  a  7idb'is  dissentiant  recusare,  we  cannot  object  to  others 
disagreeing  with  us  (Cic,  Acad.,  ii.,  3,  7). 

a.  Recusare  in  affirmative  clauses  always  takes  ne  after  it ; 
in  negative  clauses  it  may  be  followed  by  qulii,  quominus,  or 
the  infinitive. 

lllud  recusavit,  ne  id  a  se  fieri  postularent,  quod  adrer- 
sus  ius  hospitl  essetj  he  would  not  let  them  demand  that  a  thing 
should  be  done  by  him  which  was  against  the  law  of  hosj)itality 
(Nep.,  xxiii.,  12,  3)  ;  non  recusabo,  qudminus  omnes  mea 
legant,  I  will  not  object  to  everybody  reading  my  words  (Cic, 
Fin.,  i.,  3,  7)  ;  frater  meus  ad  omnia  perlcula  prlnceps  esse 
non  recusabat.  my  brother  has  no  reluctance  to  taking  the 
lead  in  facing  all  dangers. 

b.  Impedlre  and  deterrere  sometimes,  and  prohibere  more 
commonly,  take  the  infinitive.     Thus  :  — 

Caesar  Ignes  in  castrls  fieri  prohibuit,  Caesar  forbade  fires 
being  made  in  the  camp  (Caes.,  B.  C,  iii.,  30,  5)  ;  quid  est, 
quod  me  impediat  ea^  quae  mihf  probdhilia  videantur  sequi, 
what  is  there  to  hinder  me  from  adopting  the  views  which  seem 
to  me  probable  ?  (Cic,  Off.,  ii.  2,  8). 

494.  Substantive  clauses  after  the  analog}^  of  clauses 
OF  RESULT  are  chiefly  used  :  — 

a.  With  impersonal  verbs  like  fit,  axxidit,  contingit,  evenity 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES   OF   RESULT. 


295 


est,  as  a  circumlocution  to  express  the  occurrence  or  existence 
of  something.     Thus:  — 

Accidit  ut  r,„a  nocte  onmes  hennm  Atherus  ficerentur, 
it  cau.e  ..,  pass  that  in  one  ni.ht  all  the  "  hern.ae  *  at  Athens 
vere  tlu-.,«  n  .lown  ;  persae,.  evenit.  ut  utdUas  cm  h.,^state 
certet,  it  i.  often  the  ca.e  that  what  is  exi-eU.ent  .s  at  vanance 
with  what  is  ri.^l.t  (Cic.  Pari.  Or.,  25,  89)  ;  ,uanUo  fuit  ut 
,juod  lleet  non  liceret.  when  was  it  true  U.at  the  lawful  wa. 

not  lawful  ? 

495  \fter  certain  kinds  of  verbs  the  substantive 
clause  has  a  1inal  or  a  consecidive  character,  according  as 
the  given  case  is  regarded  as  something  intended  or  as 
something  accomplished  or  in  process  of  accomplishment. 

Thus  :  — 

496.  With  verbs  meaning  to  cause,  accomplish,  ob- 
tain, etc. ;  as  :  — 

Hamilcar  effecit  ut  iynperdtor  in  Hispdniam  mitteretur, 
Hamilcar  brought  it  about  that  he  should  be  sent  into  Spain  as 
commander  (0000,00,00).    (Final.) 

Impetrabis  a  Caesare,  ut  tibt  abesse  liceat,  you  will  get 
from  Caesar  permission  to  be   away   (Cic,   Att.,  ix.,  2,  A  1). 

(Consecutive.)    , 

Commeatus  ab  Remls  reliqulsque  clvitdtibus  ut  sine  perv 
culd  ad  eum  portdrl  possent,  efficiebat,  [this  thing]  made  it 
possible  for  supplies  to  be  brought  to  him  from  the  R^mi  and 
the  other  states  without  danger  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  ii.,  5).     (Final.) 

497.  So  with  impersonal  verbs  like  efiicitur,  sequitur,\ 
restat,  relinquitur.  and  expressions  like  j^roximum  e,st, 
rnos  est,  ius  est.     Thus  :  — 

Restat,  ut  de  imperatdre  ad  id  bellum  deligendd  .  .  .  d^cew- 
dum  esse  videatur,  it  seems  necessary  for  me  in  conclusion  to 

♦  Tlmt  IS,  linages  of  Ilemies  ^vith  only  the  upper  half  of  the  hody  de- 
lineated, the  lower  half  being  simply  squared  off  into  a  column  of  support 

t   KfTicitur  and  sequitur  may  also  take   an  infinitive;   as  :   6T  quo   tUw 
efficitur,  qui  bene  cenenU  omnis  libenter  cenaie,  thence  follows  that  ail 
who  dine  well  enjoy  dining. 


29G 


SYNTAX. 


speak  about  the  choice  of  a  commander  for  this  war  (Cic,  Leg, 
Man.,  10,  27).       (CONSECUTIVK.) 

Proximum  est,  ut  doceam  dedrum  prdaldentia  inundum 
adminlstrar'i,  the  next  thing  is  for  nie  to  show  that  the  universe  is 
managed  by  divine  providence  (Cic,  ^V.  X>.,  ii.,  29,  73).    (Final.) 

Arloolstus  respondit  ius  esse  hell'ij  ut  qui  vicissent  els  quds 
vicissent  (/uemadtnodum  vellent  imperarent,  Ariovistus  an- 
swered tliat  it  was  the  right  of  war  for  tlie  conqueror  to  lay  such 
commands  upon  the  vanquished  as  he  wishes  (Caes.,  B*  G.,  i., 
36).     (Fixal.) 

498.  So  after  comparatives  with  (fwim^  with  or  without 
ut^  the  subjunctive  has  sometimes  a  Jinal^  sometimes  a 
cont>ecutic(\  nature.      Thus  :  — 

Isocrates  ma  lore  mihi  ingcnlo  videtur  esse  quam  ut  cuvi 
Lysia  comparetur,  Isocrates  seems  to  me  to  have  too  great 
ability  to  be  compared  with  Lysias.     (Final.) 

Qui  perpessits  est  omnia  potins  quam  cdnsclds  delendae 
tyrannidis  indicaret,  who  suffered  everything  rather  than  dis- 
close the  accomplices  of  the  plot  to  overthrow  the  tyranny  (Cic, 
Tusc,  ii.,  22,  52).     (Consecutive.) 

499.  To  the  foregoing  clauses  may  be  added  the  clauses 
with  qinn.,  depending  on  a  clause  which  contains  or  implies 
nejjation.      Thus  :  — 

Nemo  fait  mllitum  quin  volneraretur,  there  was  no  one 
of  the  sohliers  hut  was  woun<leU.      (CoNSECUTlVT';.) 

Quia  est.  quin  cernat,  quanta  ins  sit  in  sensihiis,  who  does 
not  see  how  much  power  there  is  in  the  senses  ?    (Consecutive.) 

Aegre  sunt  retent'i  mllit?s  quin  oppidum  irrumperent, 
the  sohliers  were  with  ditfieulty  restraine<l  from  burstin;;  into  tlie 
town  (Caes.,  B.  C,  ii.,  l.'i).     (Consecutive.) 

Cicero  nihil  praetenu'isii,  quin  Pompeium  a,  Caesaris  con- 
iiinctioHe  avocaret,  Cicero  ne'jjlected  no  means  of  trying  to  get 
Pompey  away  fiorn  alliance  with  Caesar.      (FiN'AL.) 

Note.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  two  examples  qiun  retains  moro 
of  its  ori^nal  force  as  a  relative,  and  in  the  last  two  has  become  more 
thoroughly  a  conjunction. 


SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 


297 


a.  Clauses  with  quin  are  especially  common  after  non  possum, 
facere  non  possum,  non  dubiCo,  non  dubium  est.  etc.     Umsj  - 

Furere  non  possum  quin  eottUie  ad  te  mittam  htteras,  I 
cannot  help  sending  you  a  letter  every  day.     (Final.) 

Quis  dubitet.  quin  in  virtute  dluitiae  sint,  who  can  doubt 
that  there  are  riches  in  virtue  ?    (Consecutive.) 

Non  cidebdtur  esse  dubium.  quin  Caesar  venturus  esset, 
there  seemed  to  be  no  doubt  that  Caesar  would  come.  (Conse- 
cutive.) 

b.  In  the  meaning  "  I  do  not  hesitate  to  do,"  non  dubvto 
may  also  take  an  infinitive  in  classical  Latin,  though  rarely  after 
the  forms  of  expression  non  est  duhitandum,  and  noli  dubitare. 

Thus :  — 

Pro  pairia  quis  bonus  dubitet  mortem  oppetere.  what 
cood  man  would  hesitate  to  meet  death  for  his  country  .'  noMe 
dubitare  qum  Pompeio  Tml  crhlatis  omnia,  do  not  be  reluc- 
tant to  trust  everything  to  Pompey  alone. 

Note.  Nepos,  Livy,  and  the  later  writers  also  use  the  infinitive  some- 
times after  non  dubito  in  the  meaning  "  I  do  not  doubt  that. 

c.  Tantum  abest  takes  after  it  two  clauses  with  ut,  one  a 
pure  result  .■lause.  the  other  a  substantive  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Tantum  abest  ut  serVu  contra  nos  nolimus.  ut  id  etiam 
maxina  optemus,  so  far  an,  I  from  being  unwilling  to  have 
men  write  against  me,  that  that  is  what  I  particularly  desire 
(Cic,  Tusc,  ii.,  2,  4).  . 

,/.  When  clauses  introduced  by  ut,  quin,  etc.,  contain  the 
apodosis  of  a  pa.st  condition  contraiy  to  fact,  and  dei,end  on  a 
secondary  tense,  the  circumlocution  fa^tUrus  {ete.)fuent  is 
generally  used  instead  of  a  pluperfect  subjunctive.     Thus  :  — 

AdeS  inopid  est  coactus  Hannihal,  ut.  nisi  cumfuc/ae 
specie  abeundum  timuisset.   Gallia^n  repetiturus  fuerit 
Hannibal  was  driven  by  want  to  such  a  pass  that  it  he  had  not 
been  afraid  of  seeming  to  run  away  if  he  withdrew,  he  would 
have  gone  back  to  Gaul  (Liv.,  xxu.,  32,  3). 

e.  Sometimes  the   perfect  subjunctive  of  a  word  \.V.  posse, 
deb-ere,  etc.,  or  a  gerundive,  is  used  in  the  same  way.     Thus  :  - 


298 


SYNTAX. 


■  Hand  duh'ium  fuit  quin,  nisi  ea  mora  intervenisset,  cas- 
tra  eo  die  capl  potuerint,  there  was  no  doubt  that,  if  this 
delay  had  not  occurred,  the  camp  could  have  heen  taken  on  that 
day  ;  adeo  ae'pds  virihus  gesta  i-'es  est,  ut,  si  adfuissent 
JEtrUscl,  accipienda  clddes  fuerit,  the  engagement  took  place 
with  forces  so  nearly  equal  that  if  the  Etruscans  had  been  there 
a  disaster  must  have  befallen  us. 

Cf.  517,  below. 

Note.  The  above  treatment  of  subjunctive  substantive  clauses  is  in- 
tended to  classify  as  conveniently  as  may  be  the  kinds  of  verbs  after  which 
such  clauses  are  most  common.  Various  other  verbs  sometimes  express 
ideas  to  which  the  same  sort  of  notion  may  be  attached,  and  can  then  of 
course  take  such  a  substantive  clause.     Thus  : 

Ad  Appi  Claud-,  senecmem  accedebat  etiam  ut  caecus  esset,  to  the 
old  age  of  Appius  Claudius  was  added  blinch.-ss  also  (Cic,  Sen.,  6,  It.) ; 
quam  palmam  utiuam  di  immortalcs,  Sclpid,  //ftfreservent,  ut  am  reliquias 
persequare,  this  glory  of  finishing  your  grandfather's  work  I  pray  that 
the  immortal  gods  may  keep  for  you,  Scipio  (Cic,  Sen.,  6,  11)). 

For  other  kinds  of  substantive  clauses,  see  540,  and  as  follows:  — 

Clauses  with  Quod,  540.  4. 
Infinitive  Clauses,  515  ff.,  and  533  tf. 
Indirect  Questions,  518. 

Relative  Clauses  f other  than  those  of  Purpose  or  Result). 

600.  (1.)  Relative  clauses  take  the  INDICATIVE  when 
they  state  (or  deny)  a  fact  in  regard  to  the  antecedent. 
Such  clauses  may  also  iwphj  a  cause,  result,  concession, 
etc.,  or  be  equivalent  to  a  condition,  but  the  fact  is  always 
the  prominent  thing. 

(2.)  Relative  clauses  take  the  subjunctive  when  they 
indicate  a  quality  or  characteristic  of  the  antecedent 
conceived  (a)  as  making  the  statement  of  the  main  clause 
applicable ;  (6)  as  a  cause  or  hindrance  of  that  statement ; 
(c)  as  a  special  restriction  or  a  condition  of  its  applica- 
tion ;  (d)  as  producing  a  given  result. 

Note.  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  called  the  subjunctive  of 
CHARACTERISTIC,  especially  when  a  result  is  involved  in  it  (class  d).  The 
antecedent  is  frequently  a  word  like  is,  talis,  tantus,  nemo. 


RELATIVE   CLAUSES. 


299 


501.  The  following  examples  will  make  these  uses  and 

distinctions  clearer. 

Indicative.  Subji^nctive. 

Virtffs    est   una   altisshnis  (»•)             ^     _ 

derixa  rad'icibus,  quae  7mm-  Innocentia  est  adfectio  talis 

quam  vl  Tdla  lahefactarl  po-  aninu,  quae  noceat  nemim 

test,  virtue   is  the   one  thing  harndessness   is    that    sort    of 

which,  fixed  upon  the  deepest  mental  disposition  which  harms 

roots,  can  never  be  shaken  by  nobody  (Cic,  Tasc,  m.,  8,  16). 

anyforce*(Cic.,P/iiV.,iv.,5,l3).  i^-) 

Fortunatus  iinus  exitns  qui  0  fortunate  adulescens,  qui 

ea    non   vidit,    cum   ferent,  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  prae- 

quae  prdi-idit  futura,   happy  cdnem    inveneris,    O    happy 

Ids  end,  for  he  saw  not  when  youth,   in    that   you   fotmd   in 

they  came  the  things  which  he  Homer  the  herald  of  your  valor 

foresaw    were    coming     (Cic,  {Cic,  Arch.,  10,  24). 

BrFit.,  96,  329).         •  J^9om€^^   <1^   ''^'^  ^'  .^^f^ 

Curat  Chrysogomts,  ut  eius  ter  Graecas   lltteras  attigis- 

hona  veneant  statim,  qui  non  sem,  ta?nen  complures  Athe- 

noreit  ?io?ninemaut  rein,  Chry-  nls  dies  sum  comnwrdtus,  I, 

sogonus  took  care  to  have  his  though  I  had  dabbled  in  Greek 

effects  at  once  sold,  though  he  literature  late  and  but  slightly, 

did  not  know  either  the  man  yet  tarried  several  days  at  Ath- 

or  the  case    (Cic,  Base  Am.,  fens  (cf.Cic,  de  Dr.,  i.,  18,  82). 

37,  10.5).  ^^'^ 

Quia    me     meamque    rem,  Epicurus    se    unus,    quod 

quod  in  te  uno  fuit,  delace-  sciam,  sapientem  profiteri  est 

rdvM,  because,  so  far  as  was  ausus,  Epicurus  alone,  so  far  as 

in  your  individual  power,  you  I  know,  ventured  to  proclaim 

have  ruined  me  and  my  inter-  himself  a  wise  man  (Cic,  Fin., 

ests  (Plaut.,  Capt.,  666).  ii.,  3,  7). 

Catonem  vero   quis  nostro-  Omnium  qu idem  drdtorum, 

♦  The  difference  between  the  two  moods  in  relative  clauses  often  cannot 
be  shown  bv  an  English  translation  without  greatly  changing  the  form  of 
the  expression,  but  a  more  or  less  literal  translation  will  perhaps  aid  the 
pupil  in  understanding  the  use  of  the  moods,  by  clearing  from  his  path  any 
difficulties  arising  from  the  meanings  of  the  Latin  words. 


300 


SYNTAX. 


RELATIVE  CLAUSES. 


301 


Tiim  ordtomm,  qui  quidem 
nunc  sunt,  legit  ?  bat  who  of 
of  our  orators  —  of  the  present 
ajre  at  least  —  reads  Cato  ? 
(Cic,  Brut.,  17,  65). 

Qiils  tgnorat,  qui  modo 
umquam  inediocriter  res  istas 
scire  curavit,  (iiitn  trla  Grae- 
corum  genera  sint  ?  who  does 
not  know,  provided  he  has  ever 
taken  moderate  pains  to  under- 
stand this  subject,  that  there 
are  three  races  of  Greeks? 
(Cic,  Flacc,  27,  64). 

Quisquis  hUc  venerit,  va- 
puldbity  whoever  conies  here 
will  get  a  beating  (Plaut., 
Amph.,  153). 

VirtUtem  qui  adept  us  erit, 
uhicumque  erit  gentium,  a 
nobis  diligetur,  the  man  who 
acquires  virtue  will  be  esteemed 
by  us  wherever  he  shall  be 
(Cic,  N.  D.,  i.,  44,  121). 

Maximum  ornamentum 
amicitiae  tollit,  qui  ex  ed 
tollit  verecundiamy  he  takes 
away  the  greatest  adornment 
of  friendshij),  who  takes  away 
respect  from  it  (Cic,  Am.,  22, 
83). 

Quicquam  bonum  est,  quod 
non  eum  qui  id  possidet,  meli- 
orem  f  acit  ?  is  there  any  good 
thing  which  does  not  make 
him  who  possesses  it  better  ? 
Cic,  Far.y  i.,  3,  14). 


quos  quidem  egS  cognSve- 
rim,  aoutissimum  iudico  Q. 
Sertdrium,  of  all  orators  — 
those  at  least  whom  I  know  — 
I  judge  Quintus  Sertorius  to 
be  the  sharpest  (Cic,  Brut., 
48, 180). 

Serros  est  n?^mo,  qui  modo 
tolerabill  condicione  sit  servi- 
tutis,  qu'i  noil  audaciam  cwi- 
um  perhorrescat,  there  is  not 
a  slave,  provided  he  is  in  an 
endurable  state  of  slavery,  who 
does  not  shudder  at  the  reck- 
lessness of  citizens  (Cic,  Cat., 

iv.,  8,  16). 

Quaecumque  causa  vds 
hue  attulisset,  laetarer,  I 
should  be  glad,  whatever  rea- 
son had  brought  you  here  (Cic, 
de  Or.f  ii.,  4,  15). 

Philosophia,  cui  qui  pa- 
reat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine 
molestid  possit  degere,  pliiloso- 
phy,  whose  obedient  disciples 
can  pass  all  the  periods  of  life 
without  annoyance  (Cic,  Sen., 

1,2). 

(d.) 
Quis  tam  fuit  Hid  tempore 
ferreiis,  qui  non  illorum  aetd- 
te,  ndbilitdte,  miser  id  commo- 
veretur  ?  who  was  there  then 
so  hard  hearted  as  not  to  be 
influenced  by  the  age  and  rank 
and  misfortunes  of  these  i)eo- 
ple?   (Cic,  Ferr.,  v.,  46,  121). 


> 


a.  The  subjunctive  o£  characteristic  .s  especially  common 
after  ceneral  expressions  of  existence  or  non-existence.  A\  hen 
11  'expressions  are  followed  by  an  indicative  relaUve  c^a^e 
they  usually  contain  some  word  like  -«f ''/-''<"''  f"'  "'"'^ 
to  I  certain  extent  specialises  them.     (Cf .  500,  note.) 

Subjunctive. 
Indicative.  .    _ 

Sunt  autem  multt,  ...  Qui        Sunt  qui  discessum  amim 

:'L«.<r,  but  the'e  are  many  tem,  there  -  [phdosophers 

who   take    away   from  one   to  who  thmk  that   deal    xs^   he 

give  to  another  (Cic.  Off.,  I,  departure  of  the  soul  from  the 

j^  ^jx  body  (Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  9,  18)- 

b.  The  distinction  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive 
is  perhaps  most  easy  to  see  in  the  clauses  which  are  equivalent 
;  IL  pXtases  of  c;nditions,  as  in  the  last  examples  under  clas 
(c)  above;  although  here,  too,  the  distinction  ,s  a  v<n-y  subtle 
one.  Q>n  adeptus  erit  is  Uie  man  who  as  a  fact  shall  have  go  , 
nul  pareat,  the  man  who  in  any  given  case  should  obey.  A\ith 
the  general  relatives  quis^iuls,  <julcumue,  etc.,  the  indicative  is 
much  more  common  than  the  subjunctive. 

e.  Short  relative  clauses  merely  defining  an  individual,  and 
thus  practically  equivalent  to  a  descriptive  adjective,  are  ap  to 
take  the  indicative  where  a  characteristic  subjunctive  might  be 
expected.t     Thus :  — 

Haec  est,  inquam,  societas,  in  qua  omnia  insunt,  Quae  pu- 
tant  homin-es-expetenda,  this  is  an  association,  I  say,  in  which 
are  contained  all  the  things  which  men  think  worth  aiming  at 
(Cic,  Am.,  22,  84). 

.  The/art  quality  still  comes  out  sharply  in  these  cases,  and  thus  dia- 
fWimiUhps  them  from  the  subjunctive  clauses.  .      ,        v.  *. 

tThe  pu ^should  perhaps  be  cauHoned  .hat  the  "dicaUve  here  has  no 
any  mo^  than  elsewhere  the  same  shade  of  meaning  wh.ch  a  ^ubjunct  ve 
"fuldTave.     It  is  only  that  the  point  of  view  of  the  ureter  is  shghtly 
different  according  to  the  mood  he  chooses  in  any  given  case. 


302 


SYNTAX. 


Claases  wlUi  the  Temporal  Particles  Dam,  Donee,  Qnoad. 

602.  JJfim,  (Jonec^  quoad,  meaning  "•  so  long  as,"  *  or 
"  while,  '  t  almost  always  take  the  indicative  in  classical 
Latin. 

Note.     They  thus  simply  mark  the  fact  that  one  action  is  coextensive 
with,  or  happens  during-,  another. 

Examples  are : 

Ut  aegrdtd^  dum   anhna   est,   spes  esse  dJcitur^  sic   ego, 
quoad  Pompelus  in  Italia  fuit,  sperare  non  destiti,  as  a  sick 
man,  so  long  as  the  breath  of  life  remains,  is  said  to  have  hope, 
so  I  did  not  cease  to  hope  as  long  as  Ponipey  was  in  Italy  (Cic, 
Att.,  ix.,  10,  3)  ;  dum  ego  In  Sic'dla  sum,  nrdla  statua  de- 
iecta  est  J  while  I  was  in  Sicily  not  a  statue  was  thrown  down 
(Cic,  I  err.,  ii.,  66,  161)  ;  tuas  epistulas  cum  lego,  vilnus  mihi 
turpis  videor,  sed  tarn  din,  dum.  Ieg5,  when  I  read  your  letters 
I  fancy  myself  less  base,  but  only  so  long  as  I  am  reading  (Cic, 
Att.,  ix.,  6,  5) ;  dum  in  Asia  helium  geritur,  ne  in  Aetolia 
quidem  quiefae  res  fuerantj  while  the  war  was  going  on  in 
Asia,  affairs  had  been  in  unrest  even  in  Aetolia  (Liv.,  xxxviii., 
1,  1) ;  neque  enlm,  dum  eram  voblscum,  anlmum  meum  vide- 
hatis,  for  while  I  was  with  you,  you  did  not  see  my  soul  (Cic, 
Sen.,  22,  79)  ;  dum  haec  Vels  agebantur,  interim  arx  Romae 
Capitdliumqiie  in  ingent'i  perleulo  fuit,  in  the  interval  while 
these  things  were  going  on  at  Vei,  the  Citadel  and  Capitol  at 
Rome  came  into  great  danger  (Liv.,  v.,  47,  l)  ;  dum  Latinae 
loquentur  Vitterae,  quercus  huic  loco  non  deerit,  a.s  long  as 
Latin  literature  shall  [live  and]  speak,  this  place  will  not  lack  an 
oak-tree  (Cic,  Legg.,  i.,  1,  2) ;  hSc  feci,  dum  licuit,  intermlsl, 
quoad  non  licuit,  this  I  did  as  long  as  it  was  allowable,  and 
refrained  from  as  long  as  it  was  not  allowable  (Cic,  Phil.,  iii., 
13,  33). 

*  /.  c,  definitely  marking  duration  of  time. 

t  I-  €.,  either  indefinitely  marking  duration  or  denoting  a  certain  point  in 
a  given  time. 


CLAUSES  WITH   DUM,   DONEC,   QUOAD. 


303 


D5nec  gratus  eram  tiht, 
Fersarum  vigul  rege  bedtior. 

More  blest  than  Persia's  king  I  throve, 
What  time  thou  heldst  me  dear. 

(Hor.,  Cai-m.,  m.,  Vl,  1  n.) 

a.  Dum  has  a  preference  for  the  present  tense.      (Cf.  468.) 
b    Donee  is  not  used  in  Cicero  in  these  meanmgs,  nor  m 

'Tirlintr  :i  notion  is  implied  in  the  clause  wit. 

dum.     Thus :  —  ,     _   _  - 

Jta  dum  pu.ca  mancipia  retinere  volt,  fortunas  omnes 
perdidit,  thus,  in  consequence  of  wishing  to  hoW  on  to  a  few 
Ives,  she  lost  all  her  property  (Cic,  Caec.,  1  ,56)  ;  ^nh^ 
cUalls  incUimus,  dum  metul  .piam  carl  esse  et  ddigi  malm- 
xnus,  those  are  the  disasters  we  have  fallen  into  :n  consequence 
of  havini;  preferred  to  he  feared  rather  than  to  be  dear  and  be- 
loved (Cic,  Off.,  ii.,  8,  29). 

d    The  subiunctive  with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  in  the  meanings 
"  while,"  "  so  long  as,"  is  very  rare  in  classical  Latin  but  occurs 
several  times  in  Livy,  and  becomes  more  common  later.     Ihe 
subjunctive  here  seems  to  mark  the  character  oi  the  tune  raUier 
thai  the  f^t  of  the  occurrence,  and  .  ms  t.  differ  from  tl  e  mdi- 
cative  just  as  the  relative  clauses  of  characteristic  do.    Thus .  - 
Ist-o  bono  mre  dum  adsit,  cum  ahsit  ne  requlras,  use  that 
blessing  while  it  is  there,  but  when  it  is  gone  do  not  pine  for  it 
Sic    in    10,  33)  ;  nihil  deinde  moratns,  rex  qrmttu<rr  mdm 
^^Z^eJre^ns  terror  esset.  Sroti>ssam  n^lsU   U.n 
with  no  delay  the  king  sent  four  thousand  -led  -"   ^  Sc.- 
tussa  while  I  le  panic  was  fresh  (Liv.,  xxxvi..  9. 13)  ;  mhd  sane 
:  ;-;i,.  [Jeph^n^,  dSnec  continent   velut  ponie  age 
rentur,  the  elephants  displayed  no  excitement  as  long  as  they 
were  driven  along  what  seemed  to  be  a  continuous  bridge   (Liv., 

xxi.,  28,  10).* 

.  These  ca«,  a™  sometimes,  but  it  seems  to  me  less  -«sfactoril^ 

explained   otherwise:    <'"'V<'^'^  ^  ''^-^'-r^i:  ^f^'l  t„er^  co- 
implied  indirect  discourse  (see  522),  donee  agereniur,  as       ^ 

dition  (see  477,  d,  2). 


304 


SYNTAX. 


503.  With  dum^  donec^  quoad^  meaning  "  until,"  the 
indicative  simply  chronicles  the  fact,  the  subjunctive  im- 
plies 2l  purjxjse.     Thus  :  — 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

MihX  qiiidem   us'jue   curae  Dum     reliquae     naves    eo 

erlt,    quid   agas,   dum,    quid  convenirent,  ad   hdravi  nd- 

egeris,  sciero,  I  certainly  shall  fiam    in    ancur'is    ejcspectdvit, 

be  constantly  anxious  as  to  how  he    waited    at    anchor   till   the 

you  are  until  I  know  how  you  ninth  hour  for  the  rest  of  the 

have    been    (Cic,   Farn.,    xii.,  ships  to  assemble  there  (Caes., 

19,  3).  B.  G.,  iv.,  23). 

Usque  eo  timul,  donee  ad  Rogandi  orandiqu^  sunt,  ut 

reiciundos  indices  venimus,  .     .    .    differant     in    temjms 

I  was   afraid  up   to  the   time  (tliud.  dum  defervescat  7m, 

when    we    came     to    rejecting  they  must  be  asked  and  begged 

jurymen  (Cic,  Verr.,  i.,  6,  17).  to  postpone  [their  vengeance] 

Tamen  non  faciam  f'lnem  till  another   time,  namely,  till 

rogandi^    quoad    nolns   nun-  their  wrath  cools  down   (Cic, 

tiatum  erit  te  id  fecisse,  yet  Tusc,  iv.,  36,  78). 

I   shall  not  stop    asking    until  Exspecta^   amaho    te,  dum 

word  is  brought  me  that  you  Atticum     conveniam,    wait, 

have  done  the  thing  (Cic,  Att.,  please,  till  I  meet  Atticus  (Cic, 

xvi.,  16,  16).  Att.,  vii.,  1,  4). 

a.  Donee  and  quoad  are  very  rare  with  the  subjunctive  in  this 
sense. 

b.  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  indicative  do  not  occur  with 
dum,  meaning  ''  until,'*  and  in  the  subjunctive  otdy  the  tenses 
for  incomplete  action  (present  and  imperfect)  are  found. 

Clauses  of  Proviso. 

604.  Dum.moddj  and  dymmodo^  indicating  a  proviso 
(''if  only,"  "provided  that"),  take  the  subjunctive. 
The  negative  particle  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 

Oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate  if  only  they  fear 
(Suet.,  Cal.,  30)  ;  dum  res  maneant.  verba  fingnnt  arbi- 
trdtu  suo,  provided  the  things  are  left,  let  them  fashion  words 


CLAUSES   WITH   ANTEQUAM  AND   I'UWSQUAM.      305 

at  their  own  sweet  will  (Cic,  FU.,  v.,  29  89)  ;  manent  inyenla 
se,ub»s,  modS  permaneat  stuJiu.c  H  'mdusna.  the  menta 
faculties  of    the  old   do  not   become   impaired   prov.ded  their 
interest  and  energy  hold  out  (Cic,  Sen.,  7    22)  ;  cderUerad 

nsnnata  aU,,uid  imminuat  eius  yloru^e  I  thmk  we  onght 
to  come  quickly  to  the  election,  provided  that  such  haste 
prompted  by  ambition  should  not  detract  somewhat  from  h.s 
gWy  (Cic, %'«<«..  X.,  25,  2);  o..ua  ,.o.7;...u^  dummodo 
yrLcei,n.  patns  parerem,  I  put  everything  ofi,  prov.ded  I 
obeyed  my  father's  instructions  (Cic.  fU.  apud  Cic,  iam.,  xvi., 

21.  6). 

Note.  The  proviso  «ith  moda\r,d  dummodo  w.-«  originally  a  hortatory 
.ubiunctive ;  with  dum  it  developed  from  the  ten.poral  use.  Cases  like 
tile  Lt  example  under  502,  d  (Hire,  dum  adsU),  are  the  eouueet.ng  Imk 
between  the  indicative  ten.poral  clause  and  the  proviso  In  these  provl- 
sUmal  clauses  the  subjanctive  retains  its  indefinite  future  force,  the  present 
appljinU  to  a  present,  the  imperfect  to  a  past,  situation. 

Clauses  with  Anlequam  an*  Prlusquam. 

505.  With  (inteqiiam  or  j)riu><qiiam,  "  before,"  the  in- 
dicative simply  states  (or  denies)  as  a  fact  the  priority 
of  the  thing  said  in  the  main  clause  to  that  said  m  the 
temporal  clause  ;  the  subjunctive  marks  a  further  relation 
between  the  two  clauses.     Thus :  — 

Indicative.  Scbjuncti-ve. 

Antequam  pro  L.  Mure.  Is  videlicet  antequam  ve- 
na dlcere  mstituo,  pro  v^  niat  m  Pontum,  htteras  ad 
ipso  pauca  dlcam,  before  I  be-  Cn.  Pompeinm  mlttet,  he  will, 
gin  to  speak  in  defense  of  Lu-  of  course,  send  a  letter  to 
cius  Murena  I  will  say  a  few  Gnaeus  Pompeius  before  he 
words  in  my  own  belialf  (Cic,  gets  to  Pontus  (C.c,  Ayr.,  ii., 
itf"r.,  1,2).  20,53). 

Petmru  non  antequam  Traooedl  cothdie  ante- 
«Tr?.,  ad  standum  in  wfirls  quam  pronuntient  vocem 
ferendaque  arma  deerant,  cubantes  senslm  excitant,  the 
expvgnatl    mnt,  the    Petilini     [Greek]  tragedians,  m   a   re- 


306 


SYNTAX. 


were  not  beaten  until  strength 
to  stand  on  the  walls  and  hold 
their  arms  failed  them  (Li v., 
xxiii.,  30,  4). 

Neqiie  defatigtihor  ante- 
quam  anclpit'is  vlas  ratlo- 
nesqiie  et  pro  omnibus  et  contra 
omnia  dlsputandl  percepero, 
nor  shall  I  yield  to  fatigue  be- 
fore I  have  learned  the  devious 
ways  and  principles  of  argu- 
ment on  botli  sides  of  all  ques- 
tions (Cic,  de  Or.,  iii.,  30,  145). 
Inde  ante  profectus  est 
Antunius  quam  ego  eum  ve- 
nisse  cognovi,  Antonius  went 
away  from  there  before  I 
learned  that  he  had  come  (Cic, 
Att,  XV.,  1,  a,  2). 

Mernhrls  Titimur  prius- 
quam  didicimus,  cuius  ea 
causa  rttilltdtia  habedmiiSj  we 
use  our  limbs  before  we  have 
learned  for  what  useful  pur- 
pose we  have  them  (Cic.,  F'tn.^ 
iii.,  20,  66). 

Neque  prius  fugere  desti- 
terunt,  quam  ad  Jfumen  Rhe- 
num  .  .  .  pervenerunt,  nor 
did  they  stop  fleeing  before 
they  reached  the  river  Rhine 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  53). 

Antequam  tuas  legi  litte- 
ras,  horn  in  em  Ire  cupiehanu 
before  I  read  your  letter  I 
wanted  the  man  to  go  (Cic., 
Att.,  ii.,  7,  2). 


dining  position,  daily  practice 
raising  their  voices  gradually 
louder  and  louder,  before  they 
are  to  declaim  their  parts  (Cic, 
de  Or.^  L,  59,  251). 

Priusquam  inde  di^e- 
derentur,  rogantl  M  eft  id,  ex 
foedere  tcto  quid  imperdret, 
imperat  Tullus,  uti  iuuentuteni 
in  artnls  habeat,  in  answer  to 
the  question  of  Mettius  before 
they  left  the  place,  what  his 
orders  were  in  accordance  with 
the  treaty  they  had  struck,  Tul- 
lus  ordered  him  to  keep  the 
young  men  under  arms  (Liv., 
i.,  26,  1). 

Inde  ante  discessit  quam 
ilium  venisse  audissem,  he 
went  from  there  before  I  had 
heard  of  his  having  come  (Cic, 
Att.,  xiv.,  20,  2). 

Numidae  priusquam  ex 
castris  subveniretur,  s'lcutl 
iussi  erant,  in  proximos  colles 
descetidunt,  the  Numidians  go 
down,  as  thev  had  been  ordered, 
to  the  nearest  hills  before  aid 
from  the  camp  could  arrive 
(Sail.,  lug.y  54). 

iVo7?  prius  ViHdouicem  re- 
liquosque  duces  ex  concilio 
d'lmlttunt,  quam  ab  his  sit 
concessum,  they  do  not  let 
Viridovix  and  the  other  leaders 
go  from  the  meeting  before 
they  have  granted  (Caes.,  B» 
G.,  iii.,  18). 


1 


ANTEqUAM,  PRIUSQUAM.  -  POSTQUAM,   UBi.     307 
K<„..     T..e  ai«e.„ce  between  the  two  .ooas  ^^^^  ^_ 

M„.  fro.  -^'^Vn.^^'ZftrZ^J:   ol!:\l  litte.  sent  bef o. 

rjte:;":::^r;;r  .io  the  i^.. ......  0.  p«n>«se  «*  the 

;tt.e  U  h.t.a  at  ..  .he  -i---;"-— ^f  ^  .His  cUffc- 

s  Ir  >  a  >nore  confused,  and  the  subjunctive  becomes  move 
anT  morl  common  where  it  is  difficult,  if  not  .nvj.os.ble,  to  see 
why  the  indicative  should  not  have  been  used.      1  hus  . 

Panels  ante  diebus  quam  Si/mcIJsae  caperentur,  T.  OJa- 

vildt,  a  few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken    Fitus  Otec.hus 
Trossed  over  to  Utica  from  Libybaeum  with  e.ghty  men-of-war 
(Liv.,  XXV.,  31,  12). 
Cf.  also  Clauses  with  Cum,  509. 

CUaseB  wUa  Postnuam,  n*i,  etc. 

506  Clauses  with  postquam  (postedquam-),"  ^iter," 
and«6r,  "when,"  "after,"  "as  soon  as,"  almost  always, 
and  clauses  with  nf,  "when,"  "as  soon  as,"  and  srmul  «c, 
»  as  soon  as,"  perhaps  always,  take  the  indicative,  simply 
stating  (or  denying)  that  the  act  of  the  main  clause  is  sub- 
sequent to  that  of  the  temporal  clause.  These  conjunc- 
ti.L  have  a  preference  for  the  perfect  tense,  even  whe^ 
the  pluperfect  would  be  more  exact  (cf.  469).     ihus  . 

MllU-es  postquam  victormm  adept!  sunt,  nihil  reluim 
vict-is  f-eeere,  the  soldiers,  after  they  [had]  won  the  victory,  let 
nothing  to  the  conquered  (Sail.,  Cat.,  11)  ;  postquam  r«.<r,«-«t 
utrlJiue  stabant.  ...  in  medium  duces  procedunt,  af- 
ter they  got  into  position  on  both  sides,  .  .  •  the  leaders  came 
forwanl  into  the  space  between  (Ltv.,  i..  23,  6)  ;  ubx  dee^ns 
adverua  Heloetu  certSr^s  fact!  sunt,  leffatos  ad  eurn  rrntunt 
when  (after)  the  Helvetians  were  informed  of  his  arrival,  they 


308 


SYNTAX. 


sent  ambassadors  to  him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  7)  ;  Pomp? ins  ut 
equlttttum  smtm  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excessity  after  Pompeius 
saw  his  cavalry  routed  he  \\ith(h'e\v  from  the  battle  (Caes., 
B.  C,  iii.,  94)  ;  §iinul  ac  primiun  el  occaslo  visa  est, 
aversa  pecania  jnihlicd  quaestor  cotisulem  deseralty  as  soon  as  it 
seemed  to  him  a  good  opportunity,  the  quaestor,  appropriating  the 
funds  of  the  state,  abandoned  his  consul  (Cic,   Verr.^  i.,  13,  34). 

607.  Other  temporal  expressions  than  ante^  /^r/w.s, 
and  post  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  clause  with  qiiam. 
Thus :  — 

Intra  triduiun  quam  oppugnare  coeperat,  receptam  \jir- 
hem^  ex  hostlbics  coldnls  rest  Unit,  within  three  days  from  be- 
ginning the  siege  he  recovered  the  town  from  the  enemy  and 
restored  it  to  the  settlers  (Liv.,  xli.,  16,  8)  ;  L'dyhaeum  tertio 
die  quam  Inde  profectus  erat  .  .  .  redilt,  he  came  back 
to  Lilybaeum  three  days  after  he  had  gone  from  there  (Liv., 
XXV.,  31,  14);  midtd  mehercide  fecit  Antdnius  pridie  quam 
ta  ilium  relinqueres,  Antonius  was  very  active  indeed  the  day 
before  you  left  liim  (cf.  Veil.,  Pater.,  ii.,  83,  3)  ;  cum  eo  Catulus 
et  LucuUus  7wsqiie  ipsl  postridie  venissemus  quam  apiid  Co- 
tuhim  fuissemus,  when  Catulus,  LucuUus,  and  myself  had 
come  there  the  day  after  we  had  been  at  Catulus's  house  (Cic, 
Acnd.y  ii.,  3,  9). 

608.  Livy,  Tacitus,  and  the  later  writers  sometimes 
use  the  subjunctive  (pluperfect  as  well  as  imperfect)  with 
uhi  (and  quotieuiC)^  to  denote  the  general  repetiti<m  of 
an  act  in  past  time,  where  the  classical  writers  have  the 
indicative.     Thus:  — 

Id  ubi  dixisset,  hastnm  in  fines  eoritm  emlttebat,  when 
[every  time]  he  had  said  this,  he  would  throw  a  spear  into  their 
country  (Liv.,  i.,  32,  14)  ;  quotiens  super  tall  negdtio  consul- 
taret,  edita  domTis  parte  ac  llherti  unlus  conscientid  utebdtur, 
whenever  he  conferred  about  a  matter  of  this  kind,  he  would 
retire  to  the  upper  part  of  the  palace  and  take  only  one  freed- 
man  as  a  witness  (Tac,  Ann.,  vi.,  2l). 


POSTQUAM,   UBL  -  CUM  (QUOM). 


309 


Cf  under  Conditional  Sentences,  477,  d,  2,  and  under  c^^m, 
510,  1.  and  examples  8-13  in  the  indicative  column,  9-11  m 
the  subjunctive  column. 

Note  1.      Ut  is  found  with  the  subjunctive  only  in  the  following  exam- 

^^li^ut  I-men  exirem  ad  genua  a^cidit  lacruuans  ---«,  the  mmuto 
I  crossed  the  threshold  the  poor  ^rl  feU  weeping  at  my  feet  (Ter.,  Hec, 

111.,    •>,    l^/-  •    V       U  1    • 

NOTF  2  Porfg«am  also  occur  in  one  or  two  passages  with  the  subjunc- 
tive though  in  the  few  places  in  Cicero  where  it  occur  in  the  manuscnpts 
(in  tl.e  formpostei  Siwm)  the  best  texts  now  KaApostea  cum. 

ClansM  with  Oam  (Qnom). 

509  (1.)  Clauses  with  cum  {quom),  "  when,"  if  pres- 
ent, imperfect,  or  future,  mark  a  collateral  event  occurring 
at  the  same  time  as  tl.e  n.ain  event ;  if  perfect,  pluperfect, 
or  future  perfect,  they  mark  a  collateral  event  occurring 
iust  before  the  main  event. 

(2.)  If  only  this  temporal  relation  exists  between  the 
two  events,  the  aim  clause  takes  the  indicative. 

(3.)  If  a  further  relation  *  exists,  but  the  actual  oc- 
cvrrencp  of  the  collateral  event  is  more  important  than  that 
relation,  the  cum  clause  again  takes  the  INDICATIVE. 

(A  )  But  if  the  marking  of  the  further  relation  is  the 
more  important  thing  to  the  writer,  the  cum  clause  takes 
the  SUB.IUNCTIVE. 

a  In  the  in.perfect  an.l  i.luperfeot  tenses  the  subjunctive  is 
80  much  more  common  +  than  the  indicative  even  where  a 
difference  of  meaning  is  l.ardly  appreciable,  that  it  ,s  a  good 
practical  rule  for  the  beginner  in  writing  Latin,  that  these  tenses 
shoukl  not  l)e  used  in  the  indicative. 

•  That  is,  it  one  event  is  to  be  regarded  as  causing,  hindering,  or  other- 

''r^r;lTp-i:n''Jsub3unetive,  to  indicatives  in  Cicero's  orations  is 
about  five  to  one  for  the  imperfect  tense,  more  than  twenty  to  one  for  the 
pluperfect. 


310 


SYNTAX. 


CLAUSES  WITH   CUM  (QUOyf). 


311 


Note.  The  subjunctive  with  cum  is  a  characteristic  subjunctive,  as  with 
the  relative  pronouns.  (Cf.  500,  2,  note.)  The  primary  difference  of  mean- 
ing between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  is  thus  roughly  indicated 
by  the  expressions  "at  the  time  when"  (indicative),  "  at  a  time  when " 
(subjunctive).     (Cf.  the  first  pair  of  examples  below.) 

510.   From  the  simple  temporal  meaning,  cum  (^quom) 
passes  into  the  meanings  :  — 

(1.)   "Whenever"  (application  general)    ^   chiefly    with    the 
"  Now  that "   (applying  to  the  ini-    '    indicative^    until 

mediate  present)        '   "^*"'.  *!--  ^i..^^:^..i 

"  In  that "  (explanatory) 


(2.)   "  Although  "  (implying  a  hindrance) 
*'  Since  "  (implying  a  reason) 
"  While  on  the  other  hand  "  (an  alter- 
native) 


after  the  classical 
period. 

with    the    siih- 
jutictive,       ex- 

j  cept    in     early 

J   Latni. 


> 


a.  In  Plautus  and  Terence  and  other  early  Latin  writers,  the 
subjunctive  with  (iHom  is  rare,  the  indicative  being  used,  whether 
the  mere  fact  of  time  is  to  be  expressed  or  a  reason  is  to  be 
implied. 

511.  These  uses  and  shades  of  meaning  can  best  be 
understood  by  a  careful  study  of  a  series  of  examples  like 
the  follovvinii- :  — 


Indicative. 

Nam  in  ceteris  rebus  cum 
venit  calamitas,  turn  detrl- 
mentum  accipitur,  for  in  eve- 
rything else  the  damage  is  re- 
ceived only  when  the  disaster 
actually  comes  (Cic,  Leg. 
Man.,  6,  15). 

Cum  haec  Rdniae  ageban- 
tur,  Chalcide  Antiochus  sol- 
licitahat  clvitatiuin  animus, 
when   this    was    going    on    at 


Subjunctive. 

Nunc  in  ipso  discr'imine 
ordinis  iiidiriorumqne  vestro- 
rum,  cum  sint  paratl  qui, 
etc.,  now  at  the  very  crisis  of 
the  danger  to  the  senate  and  to 
your  right  of  suj)plying  juries, 
at  a  time  when  there  are  peo- 
ple ready  to,  etc.  (Cic,  Verr. 
Act.,  i.,  1,  2). 

Ipse,  cima  primum  jta- 
bull  copia  esse  inciperet,  ad 


f 


Rome,  Antiochus  was  stirring 
u\)  the  feelings  of  the  cities  at 
Chalcis  (Liv.,  xxxvi.,  5,  l). 

Cum  haec  leges,  habebi- 
vius  consules,  when  you  read 
this  we  shall  have  consuls  (Cic, 
Att.,  v.,  12,  2). 

Cum  primima  Bojtuim 
veni,  fiihil  prius  faciendum 
putdol,  as  soon  as  I  got  to 
Ilome  I  thought  nothing  ought 
to  be  done  earlier  (Cic,  Att., 
iv.,  1,  1). 

Nondujn  centum  et  decern 
anni  sunt  cum  de  pecunils 
repetundls  a  L.  Plsone  lata 
lix  est,  nulla  anted  cumfuis- 
set,  it  is  not  yet  a  hundred  and 
ten  years  since  Lucius  Piso 
])roposed  a  law  about  bribery, 
there  having  been  none  before 
(Cic,  Off.,  ii.,  21,  75). 

Tu7n  cum  in  Asia  res 
nttujuas  jyermidti  amiserant, 
seTmus  Rdmae  solutione  im- 
pedltd  fid  em  concidisse,  at 
that  time,  when  a  large  number 
of  j)eo])le  had  lost  lars^e  for- 
tunes in  Asia,  we  know  that 
payment  was  obstructed  at 
Home  and  credit  collapsed 
(Cic.  Leg.  Man.,  7,  19). 

Sin  cum  potuero,  7idn 
venero,  turn  erit  inimicus, 
but  if  I  do  not  come  when  I 
can,  then  he  will  be  my  enemy 
(Cic,  Att,  ix.,  2,  a,  2). 


exercitum  venit,  he  himself,  as 
soon  as  there  began  to  be 
j)lenty  of  fodder,  went  to  the 
army  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  ii.,  2). 

Zenonem  cum  Athenls  es- 
sem,  audiebam  frequenter, 
during  my  stay  at  Athens  I 
often  attended  Zeno's  lectures 
(Cic,  .V.  D.,  i.,  21,  59). 

Fotero  silere,  Hortensl,  po- 
tero  dissimuldre,  cum  tan^- 
tum  res  publica  volnus  acce- 
perit  ?  can  I  be  silent,  Hor- 
tensius,  can  I  hide  my  feel- 
ings at  a  time  when  the  state 
has  received  so  severe  a 
wound  ?  (Cic,  Verr.,  v.,  70, 
179). 

Cum  eius  promlssls  legi- 
on es  foriissimae  reclamas- 
sent,  domum  ad  se  venire  iUs- 
sit  cetituriones,  when  the  le- 
gions most  stoutly  held  out 
against  his  promises,  he  ordered 
the  centurions  to  come  to  his 
bouse  (Cic,  Phil.,  v.,  8,  22). 

Cum  hostem  popull  Ro- 
mdnl  Antdjiium  iudicasset, 
comes  esse  eius  dnientiae  no- 
luit,  having  judged  Antony 
the  enemy  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, he  did  not  wish  to  be  the 
comj)anion  of  his  madness 
(Cic,  Phil.,  iii.,  3,  6). 

Haec  Sclpio  cuxn  dixis- 
set.  L.  Furium  repente  veni- 
entem    adspexit,     etc.,     when 


312 


SYNTAX. 


Serplt  de'uide  res,  quae  pro- 
cllulits  ad  penile letHy  cum 
semel  coepit,  labitur,  then 
the  thing  winds  along,  and 
when  it  has  once  begun  glides 
swiftly  to  destruction  (Cic, 
Am.,  12,  41). 

De'inde  cum  Simllls  sen- 
siis  exstitit  airwris,  si  all- 
quem,  etc.,  secondly,  when  a 
like  feeling  of  affection  has 
arisen,  if  any  one,  etc.  (Cic, 
A7tl.,  8,  27). 

Cum  ad  vlllam  veni,  hoc 
ipsuin  nihil  agere  et  ])ldne 
cessdre  me  delect  at,  when  I 
come  to  my  country  seat,  this 
very  inactivity  and  absolute 
idleness  charm  me  (cf.  Cic, 
de  Or.,  ii.,  6,  24). 

Cum  pater  faDilllae  i?i- 
iTistriore  loco  ndtus  deces- 
sit.  eius  proplnqul  conue- 
nlunt,  when  the  head  of  a 
house  of  high  birth  dies,  his 
kinsmen  gather  together  (Caes., 
B.  G.,  vi.,  19). 

Cum  rosam  viderat,  turn 
incipere  ver  arbltrdbdtur, 
whenever  he  saw  a  rose  he 
thought  spring  was  beginning 
(Cic,  Verr..  v.,  10,  27). 

Plenimqve  rmlites  stativis 
castris  hahebat,nlsl  cum  odds 
aut  pdbifli  egestds  locum  mu- 
tdre  subegerat,  he  generally 
had  been  keeping  the  soldiers 


Scipio  had  said  this,  he  looked 
up  and  suddenly  saw  Lucius 
Furius  coming  (Cic,  lie  Pub., 
i.,  11,  17). 

Ciun  aiitem  contrahat 
am'icltlam,  ut  suprd  dlxh  si 
qua  sJgulJicdtld  vlrtutls  elFi- 
ceat,  ad  quam  se  simllls  ani- 
mus adpUcet  et  adlungat,  Id 
cum  contigit,  amor  exoridtur 
necesse  est,  and  when,  in  case 
as  I  have  said,  some  indication 
of  merit  Hashes  out.  towards 
which  a  like  nature  is  drawn 
to  unite  itself,  a  friendship  is 
formed,  —  when  this  happens, 
affection  must  arise  (Cic,  Am., 
14,  48). 

Vt  A.  Varius,  qui  est  hor 
bltus  index  durlor,  dlcere  conr 
sessdrl  solebat,  cum  dat'is 
testlbits  alll  tamen  citaren- 
tur,  as  Aulus  Varius,  who 
was  considered  an  austere 
judge,  used  to  say  to  his  col- 
league on  the  bench,  when,  af- 
ter some  witnesses  had  been 
heard,  others  were  still  all  the 
time  being  called  (Cic,  Fin., 
ii.,  19,  62). 

Cum  ///  Ids  duct  deblio- 
rem  vidissent,  nndlque  coii- 
voldbant,  whenever  they  saw  a 
debtor  arrested,  they  gathered 
from  all  sides  (Liv.,  ii.,  27,  8). 

Neque  hereditdtem  culu^- 
quam  adllt,   nisi    cum   ami- 


CLAUSES   WITH    CUM  (QUOM), 


313 


in  the  same  camp,  except  when 
miasma  or  want  of  fodder  had 
compelled  him  to  change  his 
position  (Sail.,  lug.,  44). 

At  que  it  I  nam  tarn  in  pe- 
rlculd  fulsset  !  cima  ego  ils, 
qulbus  meam  salTdem  cd- 
rissimam  esse  arbltrdbar,  ini- 
mlr  iss  i  m  Is  crudel  iss  i  misque 
USU3  sum,  and  oh  that  it 
had  been  in  such  <langer  !  now 
that  I  have  found  those  most 
hostile  and  cruel  to  whom  I 
thought  my  safety  was  most 
dear  (Cic,  Att.,  iii.,  13,  2). 

Sunt  enlm  quid  am,  qui 
molest  ds  amlcitids  faciunt, 
cum  ipst  se  contemn^  putant, 
for  there  are  j)eople  who  make 
friendshij)  a  bore,  when  [in 
that]  they  kee})  fancying  them- 
selves slighted  (Cic,  Am.,  20, 
72). 

Quxie  cum  praeponunt 
ut  sit  allqiui  rerum  selectu), 
ndturam  videntur  sequ't  ; 
cum  autetn  negant  ea  quic' 
(fuam  (ul  bedtam  vltam  per- 
tlnerey  rursits  ndturam  re- 
linquunt,  when  [in  that]  they 
put  forward  this  doctrine,  that 
there  is  a  clioice  in  things, 
they  seem  to  follow  nature,  but 
in  that  [when]  they  maintain 
that  the  things  have  nothing  to 
do  with   happiness  they  leave 


cltld  meruisset,  nor  did  he 
accept  any  man's  bequests  ex- 
cept when  they  belonged  to  him 
through  right  of  friendship 
(Tac,  Ann.,  ii.,  48). 

Qiind  cumi  mdlus  esse  vi- 
deatur  quam  insdnla,  tamen 
elusniodl  est  ut,  etc.,  and  al- 
thouirh  this  seems  to  be 
greater  than  insanity,  yet  its 
nature  is  such  that,  etc.  (Cic, 
Tusc.,  iii.,  5,  11). 

Hlc  tu  me  accusds  quod 
me  adfllctem,  cimi  Ita  sim. 
adflictus,  ut  nenw  umquam, 
under  these  circumstances  you 
upbraid  me  because  I  bewail 
my  lot,  when  I  have  been  tried 
as  no  man  was  ever  tried  (Cic, 
Att.,  iii.,  12,  1). 

Itaqiie  fdnid  et  multitudi- 
nis  iUdlcio  moventur,  cumi 
Id,  honest um  putent,  quod 
d  plerlsque  laudetur,  therefore 
they  are  influenced  by  what 
men  say  and  by  the  judgment 
of  the  crowd,  when  they  imag- 
ine that  right  which  is  ap- 
proved by  the  majority  (Cic, 
Tusc,  ii.,  26,  63). 

Qwd  caecdtl  hommes,  cum 
quaedam  etlam  praecldra 
cuperent,  eaque  nescirent 
nee  ubt  nee  qudlia  essent, 
fanditus  alii,  etc.,  and  men, 
blinded  by  this,  while  desiring 
some  things  really  admirable, 


314 


SYNTAX. 


nature  again    (Cic,  F'ui.,  iv.,  but  not  knowing  eitlier  where 

1(5^  43).  or  wliat  they  were,  have  some 

Grdtulor  tilt,  cum  tantum  of    them    utterly,    etc.     (Cic, 

vales    apnd    Doldbtllani^    I  Tfisc,  iii.,  2,  4). 

congratulate    you  in  that  you  Quae  cum   ita    sint   Catl- 

have    so   much  influence  with  Una  perge  quo  coeptst't,  since 

Dulabella  (Cic,  Att.,  xiv.,  17,  [now  that]  this  is  so,  Catiline, 

a   3).  go  on  as  you  have  begun  (Cic, 

Quom  ad f  In Itdte  rostra  vie  Cat.,  i.,  5,  10). 

arbitramini    dig n urn,   hahed  [Dionysim],  cum  in  com- 

volns,    Fhilto,    mag  nam   grd-  inunibus   sitggest'is  consUtere 

tiam,  in  that  [since]  your  fa-  nun    auderet,    lont'idndr'i    ex 

niily  think  me  worthy  of  their  turrl  altd  solehat,   Dionysius, 

alliance,    Philto,     I    am    very  not    daring    to   take   his  place 

grateful  (Plant.,  Trin.,  504).  on  the  general  platforms,  used 

Ul    tilHy    Demea,    bene  fii-  to    speak   from    a   high  tower 

ciant,   quom    te   video  nos-  (Cic,  Tdsc,  v.,  20,  59). 

trae  famUlae  tam  ex  unimo  Cum    inim'u'itlae    fuerint 

factum   velle,  the    gods  bless  numquam  .  .  .  rel     publicae 

you,  Demea,  now  that  [since]  jyrovidebd,    since    there  never 

I  see  you  wish  our  family  so  have  been  enmities  .  .  .   I  will 

thoroughly    well    (Ter.,    Ad.,  look  out  for  the  country  (Cic, 

917).  Fror.  Cons.,  20,  47). 

a.  When  cum  has  the  general  meaning  '*  whenever,"  the 
tense  is  more  commonly  one  of  completed  action.  (Cf.  the  ex- 
amples.) 

b.  The  meaning  of  cum  is  often  more  exactly  defined  (espe- 
cially with  the  indicative)  by  the  addition  of  words  like  prl- 
mum,  i7iterim,  intered,  nondum,  qnidem,  tamen,  etc.  (Cf.  the 
examples.) 

612.  Sometimes,  by  an  inversion  wliioh  also  occurs  in 
English,  the  main  statement  is  put  into  the  cum  clause, 
and  the  (grammatically)  principal  clause  contains  the 
accessory  statement.  The  cum  clause  then  stands  after 
the  main  clause,  and  usually  takes  the  indicative.    Thus  :  — 


CUM  (QUOM),  —  CUM  .  .  .  TUM, 


315 


Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

D'lxerat  hoc  'die,  cum  puer  Slmulat  se  edrum  praesldid 
nuntiavit  venire  ad  eum  confidere,  cum  Intered  aliud 
Lael'iutn  domoque  iam  exlsse,  quiddani  iavi  dlR  machine- 
he  had  just  finished  speaking,  tur,  he  pretends  that  he  has 
when  a  slave  brought  word  that  confidence  in  their  protection, 
Laelius  was  coming,  and  had  while  meantime  he  has  been 
already  left  the  house  (Cic,  Re  long  concocting  another  scheme 
Frdt.,  i.,  12,  18).  (Cic,  Verr.,  Act  i.,  6,  15). 

Dies  nondum  decern  inter-  Ego  in  castra  a.  d.  VII  K, 

cesserant,  cum    ille  alter  fi-  Sept.  venl,   cum   intered  sic- 

llus  Infdns  necatur,  tt-n  days  pjerldribus  diebns  ex  sendtus- 

had  not  yet  intervened,  when  consulto   et    eiwcdtorum   fir- 

that  other  infant  son  was  slain  vunn     indnum    et    equitdtum 

(Cic,  Clu.,  9,  28).  comparavissem,  I  went  into 

Frlmo  dctu  place'),  quom  camj)  on    the   twenty-sixth    of 

intered   rumor   venit   datum  August,  when  meanwhile  dur- 

trl  gladidtores  ;  populfts  con-  ing  the  days  before  I  had  got 

volat,  in   the  first   act    I    w4n  together    in    accordance    with 

a])})lause,  when  suddenly  a  re-  the  Senate's    decree    a    strong 

])ort  comes  that  there  is  to  be  force   of   retired  veterans  and 

a  prize  figlit,  and  the  people  cavalry  (Cic,  Fam.,  xv.,  4,  3). 
flock  thither  (Ter.,  Ilec,  39). 

a.  This  inversion  gives  a  more  lively  effect  to  what  is  said. 
Compare  in  English,  "  When  we  reached  the  middle  of  the 
valley,  the  cannon  suddenly  thundered  forth,"  and  "We  had 
reached  the  middle  of  the  valley,  when  suddenly  the  cannon 
thundered  forth." 

Note.  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  that  this  inversion  does  not  al- 
ways take  place  when  the  cum  clause  stands  after  the  main  clause. 

513.  Cvm  .  .  .  turn  pass  from  the  meaning  "when 
.  .  .  then  *'  into  the  meanings  "  while  .  .  .  yet,"  "  not 
only  .  .  .  but  also,"  "  both  .  .  .  and,"  and  then  are  often 
used  to  connect  single  words  or  expressions.  (Cf.  the  last 
example  below.)     Thus  :  — 


316 


SYNTAX. 


Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

Cmtippnm  cum  audi5  In-  Cdnsiliinn  tuam  cum  sem. 

henter,  turn  etiam  proprlam  per  probavissem  tum  mul- 

eius    suavUatem     vehenventer  to   mafj'is  probavl   lectls   tins 

amplector,  I  not  only  hearCra-  ruterls,  though  1  hacl   always 

tippus  gladly,  but  even  am  par-  approved     your    plan,    I    a})- 

ticularly  fond  of  his   peculiar  proved    it    much    more    afUir 

charm  of  style.  leaving  read  your  letter. 

Sed  cum   mnltls  in  rebus  Cumciue  plf^rtmas  et  maxt- 

neglegentia  plectimur,  tum  inns     commoditates     amlcitta 

mdxime  in  amJcls  et  dlUgen.  contmea.t.  turn  ilia  nimiruni 

dis   et   colendls,  but  while   in  praestat    omnibus,    etc,    and 

many  things  we  are  punished  while  friendship  includes  very 

for  carelessness,  this  is  particu-  many  great  advantages,  it  no 

larly  tlie  case  in  choosing  and  doubt  surpasses  all  other  things 

cultivating  friends  (Cic,  Am.,  in  this,  that  it,  etc.  (Cic,  Am., 

22,  85).  ^'  ^'^)* 

Ille  quidem  fructum  omiiis  ante  actae  intae  hodierno  dl?^ 
mdximttm  cepit,  cum  sumrnd  consensu  senatus  tum  iudicid 
tuo  gravissimo  et  inTtximd,  as  far  as  he  is  concerned,  he  has 
to-day  reaped  the  richest  fruit  of  all  his  i>ast  life,  both  throu-h 
the  unanimous  approval  of  the  senate  and  through  your  most 
weighty  and  exalted  decision  (Cic,  Marc,  1,  3). 

CONSTRUCTIONS   OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 
The  CONSTRUCTIONS  OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  include : — 

1.  Indirect  discourse  proper. 

2.  Indirect  questions. 

3.  Clauses  of  quoted  cause. 

4.  Other  dependent  clauses  giving  another's  idea  without 
any  verb  of  saying  expresse<l. 

5.  Clauses  in  the  surtuncttve  by  attraction. 

Indirect  Discourse  Proper. 

514.  When  a  person^s  words  or  thoughts  (whether  an- 
other person's  or  the  speaker's  own)  are  quoted,  not  in 
their  exact  grammatical  form,  but  in  narrative  form  de- 


INDIRECT    DISCOURSE. 


317 


pending  upon  a  word^of  saying  or  thinking,  the  quotation 
is  called  indirect  {Oratio  ohViqua  *). 

515.  In  indirect  discourse :  — 

(1.)  All  subordinate  verbs  are  put  in  the  subjunctive. 

(2.)  The  main  verb  is  put  in  the  infinitive,  except 
that  — 

(3.)  Imperatives  are  put  in  the  subjunctive,  and  hor- 
tatory  and  dubitative  subjunctives  retain  their  mood. 
Thus  :  — 

D'wlt  hlc  sibf  non  placere,  qimd  quaedam  ndn  invenian- 
tur,  quibus  silt  opus  sit,  he  says  he  does  not  like  it  here,  be- 
cause certain  thin^rg  of  which  lie  lias  need  are  not  found  \uii 
non  placet,  qimd  .  .  .  7idn  inveniuntur.  quibus  ei  opus  est). 

Dixit  se  iwn  credere;  an  fieri  id  posse,  he  said  he  did  not 
believe  it ;  or  could  this  be  done  .^  {non  credo ;  an  fieri  id 
potest  ?) 

D-icit  a/er/w  iactam  esse;  quid  faciat  ?  5^a^m  proficis- 
cantur  exercltusque  sequatiir,  he  says  the  die  is  cast ;  what 
can  lie  do  ?  let  them  start  at  once  and  let  the  army  follow  {alea 
iactaest;  ^?u/i  faciam  ?  statlm  v>ro^ci&cim\nl  exercltusque 
sequatur). 

516.  If  the  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  upon  which  an 
indirect  discourse  depends  denotes  past  time  (e.  c,  is  im- 
perfect, historical  perfect,  or  pluperfect),  the  dependent 
clauses,  as  a  rule,  are  all  thrown  into  the  past  (i.  e.,  the 
imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  f).  Thus  :  — 
Indirect.  Direct. 

1.  Ad  haec  Ariovistus  respondlt: 
lus  esse  bein,  ut,  qui  vi-  "  lUs  est  belli,  tif,  qui  vi- 

cissent,  lis  quos  vicissent,       cerint,    ils  quds  vicerint, 
quem   ad   modum    vellent,        quern   ad   modum    { JJjjJJ  \ , 

*  Direct  Discourse  is  called  in  Latin  Ordtio  recta. 

t  These  tenses,  therefore,  do  not  always  imply  non-fulfillment  in  condi- 
.onal  clauses  quoted,  but  often  merely  indicate  that  a  supposed  case  is 
thrown  into  the  past. 


318 


SYNTAX. 


imperarent :  item  populum 
Romanuiin  cictls  ndti  ad  alte- 
r'luspraescnptum,  sed  ad  suum 
arbitrimn    imperdre    consu- 
esse.     St  ipse  populo  Uovia- 
710  ndn  praescriberet,  quern 
ad  modmri  sua  in  re  uteretur, 
noji  oportere  sese  a  populo 
Rdmdno  in  su6  lure  hnpedlrl. 
Haeduos  sibi,  qiionlam  belli 
fortutiam    temptassent    et 
armls   congressl    dc   superat'i 
essent,   stipendiarios   esse 
factos.    Mfujuam  Caesarem 
inluriam  facere,  qui  su5  ad- 
vent u  vectujulia    sib!   deteri- 
dra  faceret.     Jlaeduls  se  ob- 
sides  redditunim  ndn  esse, 
neque  its  neque  edrum  soc'iis 
inlur'id     bellum     illaturum. 
SI    in    ed    manerent    quod 
conYenissent  stlpenduunque 
quotann'is  penderent ;  sTi   id 
ndn  fecissent.  longe  its  fra- 
ternmn  nomen  popul'i  Romdnl 
afuturum.     Quod  sibi  Cae- 
sar denuntiaret,  se  Haedu- 
drum  iniurids    ndn    neglect u- 
rum,  neminem  secum  sine 
suU    pernicie     contendisse. 
Cum  vellet,  congrederetur : 
inteUecturum,   quid   invictl 
Germdnl,    exercitdtissiml    in 
armls,  qui  inter  annos  qiiat- 
tuordecim  tectum  ndn  subis- 
sent,  virtTite  possent. 


imperent :  item  populus  R5- 
manus  victls  ndn  ad  alter!, us 
pjraescrlptum,   sed    ad    suum 
arbitrium   imperdre  consue- 
vit.     S'l  ego  populo  Udma/iu 
7idn  praescribo,  que7n  ad  7n0' 
dum   sud    lure    utatur,    7idu 
oportet    me  a   pop  u Id  Kd- 
mdnd  in  meo  iure  impedlrl. 
Haedui  mihi,  quoiiiam  belli 
fort u nam  temptarunt  et  ar- 
7nls     co-ngressl    dc     superdti 
sunt,  stipendiarii  sunt  f ac- 
ti.      Mdgnam     tu,    Caesar, 
iniuria7n  facis,  qui  tuo  ad- 
vent u  vectlgdlia  mihi  dlteri- 
dra   facis.     Jlaeduls    obsides 
non  reddam,  neque  ils  neque 
edrum  socils    iniurid    bellum 
illaturus     sum,    si     in    ed 

i  maneant    I      ,.^iqJ     convene- 
( manSbunt )      i 

runt   stlpendiumque   quotan- 

n-is  15ISS}'  '''  '^  '''^''  ^^ 
cerint,  lunge  ils  frdternum 
7W men  popull  Rdmdnl  aberit. 
Quod  mihi  denuntias,  te 
Haedudrmn  iniurids  ndn  ne- 
glect u  rum,  nemo  mecum 
sine  sud  jjernici?  contendit. 
Cum  \l^^:\  congredere:in- 
telleges,  quid  invictl  Ger- 
7ndnl,  exercitdtissiml  in  ar- 
mls^ qui  inter  annus  quattuor- 

decim  tectum  nun  Jgubierlnt  ( 
virtute  possint  (Caes.,  B.  G.y 
i.,  36). 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 


319 


2.  Quod  si  veteris  contume- 
liae  obllvlsrl  vellet,  num 
etiani  rerentiurn  iniuridnim, 
quad  eo  invito  iter  per  prrd- 
vinciam  per  vim  temptas- 
sent, quod  Haeduos,  quod 
A  niha  rrdSy  q  nod  A  llubrogas 
vexassent,  memoriam  depd- 
nere  posse?  Quod  sua  vic- 
tor id  tf/m  Insolenter  gloria- 
rentur  quod  que  tam  did  se 
impu)i?  tulisse  iniurids  ad- 
mirarentur,  eddem  perti- 
nere. 


2.  Quod  si  veteris  contn- 
mellae  obllvlscl  velim,  nu7n 
etiani  recentium  iniuridrnm, 
quod  me  invltd  iter  per  prd- 
vincia7n  per  vim  temptastis. 
quod  Haeduds,  qiiod  Ambar- 
rds,  quod  Allubrogas  vexa- 
stis,      7nenioriam      depdnere 

I JSSS,  I  ?  Q>^^'  vestra  vie- 
tdrid  ta7n  Insolenter  glori- 
amini  quod  que  tam  did  vos 
nnpune  tulisse  iniurids  ad- 
miramini.  eddem  pertinet 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  14). 


3.   Caesar  ad  Lingonas  lltterds  nuntidsque  7nlsit  : 

Ne  ens  frumentd  neve  alia         Ne  eds  fru7nentd  7wve  alia 

re   iuvarent;    qui  si  iuvis-     r?.    iuveritis ;    si    iuveritis 

sent  se  eddem.  loco  qud  Hel-     vos  e:dde7n  locd  quo  Heloetids 

vetidsjiabiturum.  habebd  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  26). 

Note.     For  the  convenience  of  the  pupil  the  following  translation  of  the 
indirect  fonn  of  the  above  passages  is  subjoined :  — 

1.  To  this  Ariovistus  made  answer,  that  it  was  the  right  of 
war  for  those  who  had  conquered  to  lay  upon  those  whom  they 
had  conquered  such  commands  as  they   pleased  ;    the  Roman 
people  likewise  were  in  the  habit  of  laying  commands  n|)on  the 
conquered  not  at  another's  dictation,  but  according  to  their  own 
judgment.     If  he  did  not  dictate  to  the  Roman  ])eopIe  how  they 
were  to  use  their  rights,  he  ought  not  to  be  interfered  with  by 
the  Roman  people  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights.     The  Haeduans 
had  been  made  his  tributaries  since  they  had  tried  the  fortune  of 
war  and  had  been  met  and  defeated  in  battle.     That  Caesar 
was  guilty  of  a  great  wrong  in  that  by  his  arrival  he  was  di- 
minishing his  revenues  from  tribute.     He  was  not  going  to  re- 
store the  Haeduans'  hostages  to  them,  nor  did  he  intend  to  make 
war  upon  them   or  their   allies  wrongfully    [as   he   would   be 


320 


SYNTAX. 


doing  in  case  he  attacked  them]  if  they  stood  by  tlieir  agree- 
ment and  paid  their  tribute  yearly;  if  they  did  not  do  this, 
they  would  find  the  name  of  brethren  given  them  by  the  Ro- 
man people  very  far  from  being  of  advantage  to  them.  As  to 
Caesar's  threatening  him  that  he  would  not  disregard  injuries 
done  to  the  Haeduans  [he  would  say]  that  no  one  had  fought 
with  him  without  bringing  destruction  upon  himself  ;  he  might 
come  to  an  engagement  whenever  he  jdeased,  and  would  find 
out  what  the  unconquerable  Germans,  who  were  thoroughly 
trained  soldiers  and  had  not  lived  under  a  roof  for  fourteen 
years,  could  accomplish  in  bravery. 

2.  But  if  he  should  be  willing  to  forget  the  insults  of  long 
standing,  could  he  also  lay  aside  the  remembrance  of  the  recent 
wrongs  they  had  done,  in  that  they  had  tried  to  force  a  way 
through  our  province  against  his  will,  and  had  harassed  the 
Haeduans,  the  Ambarri,  and  the  Allobroges  ?  Their  boasting 
80  arrogantly  of  the  victoiy  they  had  won  and  their  surprise 
at  having  inflicted  injuries  so  long  without  rousing  vengeance 
pointed  in  the  same  direction. 

3.  Caesar  sent  a  letter  and  messengers  to  the  Lingones,  saying 
that  they  were  not  to  aid  them  with  grain  or  anything  else  ;  if 
they  did  aid  them,  he  should  regard  them  as  on  a  par  with  the 
Helvetians. 

a.  Sometimes  when  the  verb  on  which  the  Indirect  Discourse 
depends  is  in  a  past  tense  a  subordinate  subjunctive  is  retained 
in  the  present  tense,  thus  giving  a  more  lively  effect.     Thus  :  — 

Ad  haec  Q.  Marcius  respoviUt :  ch  ffr7;i7.s  discedant,  Ro- 
mam  svppUces  proficiscantur,  to  this  Quintus  Marcius 
answered,  let  them  withdraw  from  arms  and  go  as  suppliants  to 
Rome;  el  Ufjatidn'i  Ariovistus  respond  It :  sJ  quid  ipsl  a  Cae- 
save  opus  esset  sese  ad  eum  ventTtrum  fuisse  ;  si  qvid  ille  a 
se  velit  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere,  to  this  embassy  Ariovistus 
made  answer,  that  if  he  had  needed  anything  from  Caesar  he 
would  have  gone  to  him  ;  if  Caesar  wanted  anything  of  him  he 
[also]  ought  to  come  to  him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  34).  Cf.  also 
chapters  14  and  31  of  the  same  book. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


321 


Note.  By  thus  using  the  present  tense  the  writer  brin^,  for  the  mo- 
ment, the  time  when  the  thing  was  originally  said  up  to  the  time  when  it 
is  quoted.  Such  a  construction  represents  a  sort  of  half-way  stage  between 
completely  direct  and  completely  indirect  quotation.  For  a  still  more 
marked  fusion  of  the  time  when  a  speech  was  made  with  the  time  at 
which  it  is  quoted  see  ch.  40  of  the  same  book  :  factum  eius  hostis  peri- 
cuium  patrum  nostrorum  memarid,  cum,  Cimbrls  et  Teutonis  d  C.  Mario 
pulsis,  non  minorem  laudem  exercitus  quam  ipse  imperdtor  meritus  vide- 
batur,  that  trial  was  made  of  that  enemy  within  the  memory  of  our 
fathers,  when  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  were  routed  by  Gains  Marius  and 
the  army  seemed  to  have  earned  as  much  glory  as  the  general  himself. 
The  clause  cum  .  .  .  videbdtur  is  taken  out  of  the  indirect  discourse  and 
said,  as  it  were,  to  the  reader. 

h.  Of  the  three  verbs  of  saying,  died  most  commonly  in- 
troduces indirect  discourse,  but  may  also  introduce  direct  dis- 
course ;  aid  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  indirect  discourse,  ex- 
cept in  the  phrase  '^  ut  ait  Ennius,  Cicero,  etc.  ;"  inqnam  is 
used  only  for  direct  discourse,  and  always  stands  after  some 
word  or  phrase  of  the  (luotation ;  as,  "  scis  vie,''  inquam,  "  idem 
sentlrer  "you  know,"  said  I,  ''that  I  hold  the  same  opinion." 

c.  Sliort  direct  questions  like  qvid  credit  is?  are  generally  put 
in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  rather  than  in  the  infini- 
tive ;  quid  crederent,  not  quid  credere.     (Cf.  Liv.,  vi.,  37,  6.) 

d.  Relative  clauses  in  which  the  relative  is  equivalent  to  a 
demonstrative  and  connective  (cf.  451)  have  the  force  of  inde- 
pendent clauses,  and  are  generally  put  in  the  infinitive,  in  indi- 
rect discourse.     Thus :  — 

Umimqvemque  nostrum  {censent']  eius  mundi  esse  partem  ; 
ex  qu5  illud  natura  consequi.  ut,  etc..  each  one  of  us,  they 
think,  is  a  i)art  of  that  universe  :  from  wliich  it  naturally  follows 
that,  etc.  (Cic,  Fin.,  iii.,  19,  64)  ;  quibus  proeliis  calamitdti- 
busque  fractos  .  .  .  coactos  esse  SequanTs  obsides  dare,  and 
that,  broken  by  these  battles  and  disasters,  they  had  been 
obliged  to  give  hostages  to  the  Sequani  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  31). 

So  also  sometimes  other  clauses  which  are  dependent  in  form 
but  independent  in  force  ;  as  :  — 

Saepe  dictum  est,  ut  jmire,  quod  siia  natura  tranquiUum  sit, 


322  SYNTAX. 

ventdrum  vl  agitari  atque  turbari.  sic  populum  Rdmamim, 
etc,  it  has  often  been  said  that  as  the  sea,  which  in  its  own  na- 
ture is  peaceful,  is  roused  and  put  in  commotion  by  the  force  of 
the  winds,  so  the  Roman  people,  etc.  (Cic,  Clii.,  49,  138). 

e.  Comparative  clauses  after  (juat/i  more  commonly  appear  in 
the  infinitive  (when  the  clause  containing  the  other  term  of  the 
comparison  has  the  infinitive),  but  sometimes  they  have  the  sul> 
junctive  with  or  without  nt.     Thus  :  — 

Addlt  et'uim  se  priiis  occ'isum  irl  ah  eo  quam  me  violatum 
iri,  he  adds  also  that  he  would  allow  himself  to  be  killed  by  him 
sooner  than  have  me  injured  (Cic,  Aft.,  ii.,  20,  2)  ;  se  mlllens 
moriturds  potiiis  quam  ut  tantutn  dedecorls  admitti  patian- 
tur,  that  they  would  die  a  thousand  times  rather  than  sufi'er 
such  disirraceiul  action  to  be  taken  (Liv.,  iv.,  2,  8). 

Note.  Cicero  prefers  the  infinitive,  Livy  the  subjunctive  alone  or  with 
ut;  Caesar  has  the  infinitive  and  the  subjunctive  witliout  ut. 

f.  Subordinate  clauses  (mostly  relative)  may  be  retained  in 
the  indicative  if  they  contain  exi)lanatory  statements  which  are 
true  independent  of  the  quotation,  or  are  merely  a  part  of  the 
definition  of  something  mentioned.     Thus  :  — 

Per  expldrdtdi-es  certior  factiis  est  ex  ea  parte  vicl,  quam 
GalUs  concesserat,  omn'es  nocta  dlscessisse,  he  was  informed 
by  spies  that  everybody  had  left  by  night  the  part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  given  up  to  the  Gauls  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  iii.,  2)  ;  quis 
potest  esse  tam  praeceps  qui  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus 
deorum  potestate  adminlstrarJ,  who  can  be  so  rash  as  to  deny 
that  all  this  world  we  see  about  us  is  regulated  by  the  power  of 
gods?  (Cic,  Cat.,  iii.,  9,  2l). 

g.  Sometimes  in  the  same  quotation  a  change  is  made  from 
indirect  to  direct  discourse.     Thus  :  — 

Tall  modo  accusatus  ad  haec  respondlt :  quod  castra  7nTj- 
visset,  factum  Inopia  pahull.  .  .  .  '^  Hare  ut  intellegdtisyin-^ 
quit  ^'sincere  a  me  pronuntiaru  audlte  Rdmanos  mlldes,'' 
accused  in  this  fashion,  he  made  answer  to  the  accusation,  that  as 
to  his  having  moved  his  camp,  this  was  due  to  want  of  fodder.  .  .  . 
"  And  that  you  may  know  that  I  am  sincere  in  saying  this," 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 


323 


said  he,  "  listen  to  [tlie  testimony  of  these]  Roman  soldiers  " 
(Caes.,  B.  G„  vii.,  20\ 

517.  Conditions  contrary  to  fact  undergo  a  slight 
change  of  form  in  indirect  discourse,  as  follows : 

(1.)  In  the  active  voice  generally  the  apodosis,  if  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  becomes  /(ftvre  infinitive  (i.  e.,  fac- 
turum,  etc.,  f .s.sfO  ;  if  pluperfect,  it  becomes  facturum, 
etc.,  fiiis,<<e.     Thus  :  — 

[Titnrius  clamitahat']  neque  aliter  Carnutes  interficiendl 
Tasgetl  consiliiun  fuisse  captures,  neque  Eburdnes,  st  ille 
adesset,^  tanta  cmn  contempt  id  ne  nostrl  ad  castra  ventur5s 
esse.    Titurius   kept   crying  out  that   otherwise  the   Carnutes 
would  not  have  formed  the  plan  of  slaying  Tasgetius,  and  that 
the  Eburones,  if  he  were  there,  would  not  come  to  camp  with 
such  marked  contempt  for  us  (Caes.,  B,  G.,  v.,  29) ;  an  censes 
me  tantos  lahdres  suscepturum  fuisse,  si  isdemflnibus  gld- 
riam  menm  quiJnis  vltam  essem  termindturus,  or  do  you  sup- 
l)ose  I  sliould  liave  taken  such  toils  upon  myself  if  I  had  ex- 
pected to  ])ound  my  glory  by  the  same  limits  as  my  life  ?  (Cic, 
Sen.,2^,S2).  ^  ^       ' 

(2.)  In  the  passive  voice  regularly,  and  in  the  active 
occasionally,  the  circumlocution  futnrum  esse  (fore)  ut 
is  used  for  present  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  futurum 
fuisse  ut  for  past  conditions.  The  subjunctive  used  with 
this  ut  is  then  in  both  cases  imperfect.     Thus  :  — 

Nisi  eo  ipso  tempore  qmdam  ndntil  de  Caesaris  victoria 
per  dispositos  equites  essent  adldtl,  exlstimdbant  plerlque  fu- 
turum fuisse  ut  loppidum']  amitteretur,  most  people 
thought  that  unless  certain  messages  about  Caesar's  victory  had 
been  brought  at  that  very  time  by  horsemen  stationed  at  inter- 
vals for  the  purpose,  the  town  would  have  been  lost  (Caes.,  B 
C,  iii.,  101).  ^ 

a.  Occasionally  some  form  of  posse,  debere,  or  the  like,  or  a 
gerundive,  takes  the  })lace  of  the  future  participle  in  the  above 
expressions.     Thus  :  — 


324 


SYNTAX. 


Plat-onem  e^7sthm.  si  gem^  forense  dleendl  tracf^re  vohns- 
set  nravhnme  potuisse  dlcere,  I  judge  that  .f  Plato  had 
chosen  to  take  up  the  forensic  kind  of  oratory,  he  could  have 
„>a,le  a  most  effective  speaker ;  api«lret  non  recipiendum 
fuisse  larentum,  nisi  amissum  foret,  it  would  seem  that  Fa- 
rentum  would  not  have  had  to  be  retaken  if  it  had  not  been 
lost.     (Cf.  also  477  c.) 

Note  With  regard  to  the  apcKloses  of  conditions  other  than  thoM 
coS  to  fact  it  should  be  observed  that  the  future  indicat.ve  and  pres- 
ent  sulnetive  are  represented  in  the  indirect  discou^e  by  the  future  .n- 
rl  e  the  future  perfect  indicative  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  by/ore 
^J^h  the  perfect*  subjunctive  in  the  .active  voice,  by  the  perfect  part- 
ciple  with /ore  in  passives  and  deponents.      Hius  : 

Dicit  si  rog?s  sS  facturum  esse,  he  says  he  will  (or  would)  do  it  if  you 
aak  (or  should  ask)   bin,, -in  direct  discourse,   si   roy.,   (rosabu)  .  .  . 

facial  ifaciet).  . 

Spiro  fore  «t  si  negotia  mea  bene  cisserint  moz  ad  .os  red.erim,  I  hope 
that  if  my  affairs  turn  out  weU,  I  shall  soon  come  back  to  you,  -  n,  direct 
discourse,  si  cesserirU  .  .  .  redienm  (redtero).  „        .       .       . 

UOc  vossum  dlcere,  mi  satis  adeptum  fore,  si...  nl-dlum  .n  me  per.cu- 
iufr  r  d"  ri<,  this  I  can  say,  that  I  shall  have  obuined  enough  .f  n 
danger  flows  back  „pon  me,  -  in  direct  dUcourse,  saUs  adeptus  era  (er„.,) 
...Si  ..•  redunddrit  (Cic,  SulL,  9,  27). 

Indirect  QueaUonfl. 

518.    INDIUFXT     QUESTIONS    take    the     subjunctive. 

Thus:—  .   ^     „ 

Doc-e  rne,  igltur,  unde  sint.  ub!  sint.  quales  smt  tell  me 

then  whence  [the  gods]  come,  where  they  are.  what  the.r  natu.^ 
hen  whence  L       S      J  .^^.  ^^^y^j^t  ^n  vero  81- 

•;S:;^.tXl  ;u  wiU  nnderst...d  whether  that  is^beir 
real  opinion  or  whether  they  are  in  fact  pretendrng  Cic.)  , 
rUL  sit  «„;.».  ^^.e  anir^us  ,^seiet.^i_  ^T^f 
shall  not  know  what  sort  of  a  thing  the  mind  is  (Cic,  Tasc,  .., 

22,  53).  ,_        .     .- 

a.  The  expressions    nescio  quis,  nescio  quo   modo,   nese.o^ 
unde,  etc.,  are  generally  equivalent  to  "  some  one,    "  somehow , 
•  Pluperfect  when  the  verb  of  saying  is  past  (see  516). 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 


325 


etc.,  and  therefore  having  lost  their  interrogative  force,  have  no 
influence  upon  the  mood  of  the  verb  which  follows  them. 
Thus  :  — 

Sed  casu  nescio  quo  in  ea  tempora  aetds  nostra  inci- 
(lit,  but  by  some  chance  my  life  has  fallen  upon  a  time,  etc. 
(Cic). 

b.  So  also  mlruin  (iiianiy  mJrum  q^iantum,  nimium  quan- 
tu7n  ;  as  :  — 

Sales  qui  in  d'wendd  nimium  quantum  ?7a^ewf,  wit,  which 
has  some  tremendous  power  in  oratory  (Cic,  Or.,  26,  87). 

c.  In  early  Latin  the  indicative  w^as  used  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, and  this  use  frequently  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 
Thus  :  — 

Scire  void,  quoi  reddidisti,  I  want  to  know  to  whom  you 
gave  it  (Plant.,  Care,  543)  ;  vide  avaritia  quid  facit,  see 
what  greed  does  (Ter.,  PA.,  358). 

d.  Indirect  questions  are  sometimes,  by  a  development  from 
conditional  clauses  which  also  occurs  in  English,  introduced  by 
si  =  *'  if,"  "  whether."     Thus  :  — 

Quaes'ivit  iterum  si  cum  Bdmdtiis  mllitdre  liceret,  his 
second  question  was,  whether  [if]  he  might  serve  in  the  Roman 
army  (Li v.,  xl.,  49,  6) ;  vurdbar  Jwc  si  s'lc  abiret  et  eri  sem- 
per lenitds  verehar  quorsum  evdderet,  I  wondered  if  [whether] 
this  would  [not]  come  out  so,  and  was  always  apprehensive  as  to 
what  master's  easy  discipline  would  result  in  (Ter.,  An.,  175). 

6.  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  comic  poets,  a  direct  question 
is  repeated  with  surprise  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed, 
and  thus  becomes  indirect  and  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  depend- 
ing on  the  idea  "  do  you  ask."     Thus  :  — 

Quid  nunc  faciundum  censes  ?  Tr.  Egd  quid  censeam  ? 
AVhat  do  you  think  oui^ht  to  be  done  now  ?  Tr.  What  do  I 
think?  (Plant,  J/osf.,  55G). 

Note.     Indirect  questions  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  dependent  rel- 
ative clanses,  thouj^h  sometimes  the  form  is  the  same.     Thus :  — 

Dicam  quae  sentiam  (interrog-ative)  =  qua£   sentio  f  dicam,  What  do  I 


326 


SYNTAX. 


think?  I  will  tell;  dicam  quae  sentiam  (relative)  =  dicam  ea  quae  sentio 
or  sentiam,  I  will  say  the  things  I  think. 

For  the  use  of  the  interrogative  particles  in  indirect  questions,  see  579  fP . 

Cansal  Clauses  with  Quod,  Quia,  Quoniam. 
519.  In  causal  clauses  with  quod  or  quia*  "because," 
and  quoniam^  "  since,"  the  indicative  simply  asserts  (or 
denies)  one  thing  as  the  cause  or  reason  of  another  ;  the 
subjunctive  represents  the  cause  as  one  assigned  by  some 
one  other  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  —  generally  by  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause. 

Note.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  subjunctive  does  not  deny  (even  by 
implication)  that  the  reason  given  is  the  true  one.  On  tlie  contrary,  the 
subjunctive  may  be  used  of  that  which  the  speaker  believes  to  be  the  cause 
of  an  action,  but  which  he  does  not  wish  to  state  positively  as  such. 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

Ita    fit    ut    adsbit    prop-  Laudat      Africanum     Pa- 

tered,  quod  offirinm  sequon-  7iapthfs,    quod    fuerit    absti- 

tiir,    taceant    untew.     'ulcirco  ???7^s^  I'anaetius  praises  Africa- 

quia    perlndum    vitant.    so  mis  for  his  self-control    (Cic, 

they  are  here  because  they  are  Off.,  ii.,  22,  76). 

thus   performing   a   duty,  but  An  paenitet  vos  quod  sal- 

they  are  silent  for  the  reason  vo)n  exercltiim  traduxerim  ? 

that   they  shun    danger  (Cic,  do  ye  regret  my  having  brought 

Itosc.  Am.,  1,1).  the  army  over  in  safety  ?  (Caes., 

Quod  spiratis,   quod  vo-  B.  C,  ii.,  32). 

cem   mittitis,    quod  formds  Bene  viawres  accuhltionem 

homlnum  habetis,  indlfjyian-  epnldrem  artucorum,  quia  vl- 

tur,   they   are   angry  because  tae    coniunct'idnem    haberet, 

you    breathe   and    speak    and  convwium  nominaverunt,  our 

have  the  shapes  of  men  (Liv.,  ancestors  did  well  in  giving  to 

iv.,  3,  8).  the  recUning  of  friends  together 

Quo   quldem    efiam    magls  at  a  banquet  the  name  "  convi- 

sum  exercitus,  ndn  quia  mul-  vium."  a  living  together,  from 

*  Quod  is  much  commoner  than  quia  or  quoniam,  especially  with  the  sub- 
junctive, 


CAUSAL  CLAUSES. 


327 


tls   debeo.    sed    quia    saej)e  its   involving   a  communitv  of 

concurrunt,  etc.,  therefore  I  life  (Cic,  Seii.,  13,  45). 
am    even  more    exercised,  not         Ber/nd    7idn    aequo     animo 

because  lam  indebted  to  many  carebas ;  est  autem   impudens 

l)eopIe,  but  because  there  often  luetus  maerore  se  cdnficientls, 

come      together,      etc.     (Cic,  quod  Imperare  ndn  liceat  li- 

Flanc.y  32,  78).  berls,  you  did    not    bear  witli 

Vos,     Qui  rites,     quoniam  calmness    the    loss    of    power. 

iani  nox  est,  iii  vestra  tecta  But  his  grief  is  shameless  who 

discedlte,   do  you,  fellow  citi-  consumes  himself  with  sadness 

zens,   since   the  night   is    now  because  he  may  not  have  sway 

come,    depart   to   your   houses  over  freemen  (Cic,  Tusc.,  iii., 

(Cic,  Cat.,  iii.,  12,  29).  12,  26). 

lactatum  m  condlcidnibus  nequlquam  de  Tarqulnns  in 
rerjnum  restituendls,  maqis  quia  id  negare  ipse  nequiverat 
Tarquinils,  quam  quod  neqdtum  Irl  sibt  ab  Bamanis  ignora- 

ret,  mention  was  made  in  the  terms  —  though  to  no  i)urpose 

of  restoring  the  Tarquins  to  the  tlu-one,  more  because  he  had 
himself  been  una])le  to  refuse  that  to  the  Tarquins,  than  be- 
cause he  did  not  know  well  enough  that  the  Romans  would 
reject  the  proposition  (Liv.,  ii.,  13,  3). 

520.  Died,  puto,  etc.,  are  sometimes  put  in  the  sub- 
junctive in  a  causal  clause,  when  the  reason  is  really  con- 
tained in  an  infinitive  dependent  upon  them.     Thus  : 

Cum  enim  Hunnihalis  j^ermtssu  exisset  de  castr'is,  rediit 
jmnld  2>ost,  quod  se  obUtum  nescid  quid  diceret,  for  when 
he  had  gone  out  from  the  camp  with  Hannibal's  permission,  he 
returned  a  little  later  because,  as  he  said,  lie  had  forgotten 
something  (Cic,  Off'.,  i.,  13,  40)  ;  qui  istinc  veniunt,  superbiam 
tuam  acrusant,  quod  negent  te  percontantibus  respondere, 
those  who  come  from  there  criticise  your  arrogance  because,  as 
they  say,  you  do  not  answer  people  who  question  you  (Cic, 
Fam.,  vii.,  16,  3)  ;  ex  his  Bellovac'i  suum  numerum  ndn 
compleverunt,  quod  se  sud  nomine  atque  arbitrio  cum  Bo- 
mdnls  bellum  gesturos  dicerent,  of  these  the  Bellovaci  did 


328 


SYNTAX. 


not  fill  out  their  contingent,  because,  as  they  said,  they  were 
ffoincr  to  fio-ht  with  the  Romans  on  their  own  account  and  under 
their  own  direction  (Caes.,  n.  u.,  vn.,  io). 

521.  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  non  qiiod  and  non 
quo,  meaning  "not  that"  (not  because),  negative  non 
quod   non,    ndn    quo   non,    ndn   qiCin    {}\ot   but   that).* 

Thus :  — 

Etsi  non  idclrm  eorum  Usum  dlmlserain,  quod  us  suc- 
censerem  sed  quod  eorum  me  subpudebat,  although  I  had  not 
given  up  their  intimacy  because  I  was  angry  with  them  but 
because  I  was  rather  ashamed  of  them  (Cic,  Fam.,  ix.,  1,  2)  ; 
non  quo  mea  quidem  iam  intersit  .  .  .  sed,  etc.,  not  that  it 
makes  a  difference  to  me  any  longer  .  .  .  but,  etc.  (Cic,  de  Or,, 
ii.,  18,  74)  ;   etsl  eo  te  adhuc  cdnsillo  usum  intellego,  ut   id 
reprehend  ere  non  audeam,  non  quin  ah  eo  ipse  dissentiam, 
sed  quod  ea  te  saplentia  esse  iudico,  although  I  see  that  you 
have  thus  far  adopted  a  course  which  I  should  not  venture  to 
criticise,  not  that  I  do  not  myself  hold  a  different  view,  but  be- 
cause I  have  such  confidence  in  your  wisdom  (Cic,  Fam.,  iv., 

7,1). 

For   qufid  =   "the   fact   that,"    introducing   substantive   clauses,   see 
540,  4. 

Clauses  giving  Uie  Thought  of  Another. 

622.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  thing 

said  in  a  subordinate  clause  as  something  in  the  mind  of  a 

person  other  than  the   speaker  or  writer,  —  generally  the 

subject  of  the  main  clause  (implied  indirect  discourse). 

Thus  :  — 

Faetus  omnes  Uhrds  quds  f rater  S2ius  reliquisset,  mih't 
dondvit,  Paetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  his  brother  had 
left  [i.  e.,  he  was  influenced  to  give  them  by  the  fact  that  his 

♦  Ndn  quia,  ndn  quia  ndn,  are  also  used,  but  are  very  rare  in  classical 
Latin.  Occasionally  all  of  these  conjunctions,  except  ndn  qud,  ndn  quo  non, 
are  found  with  an  indicative,  thus  marking  the  reason  distinctly  aa  the 
actual  one. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   BY    ATTRACTION. 


329 


brother,  etc.]  (Cic,  Att.,  ii.,  1,  12);  Darius,  dum  ipse  abes- 
set,  2^^utls  cUstddes  rellquit  j/rhicijies,  qtids  secum  ex  Ionia, 
duxerat,  Darius  left  as  guards  of  the  bridge  while  he  should  be 
absent,  chieftains  whom  he  had  brought  with  him  from  Ionia ; 
Afjesilaus  niulto  gldrioslus  dilxit,  si  histltutls  patriae  paru- 
isset  quam  si  belld  superasset  As  iam,  Agesilaus  thought 
it  a  much  more  glorious  thing  if  he  obeyed  tlie  established 
laws  of  his  country  than  if  he  conquered  Asia  in  war  (cf.  Nep., 
Ages.,  4). 

Sahjonctive  by  Attraction. 

623.  A  clause  depending  upon  a  subjunctive  (or  an 
infinitive),  and  denoting  something  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  integral  part  of  the  thought  expressed  in 
the  clause  on  which  it  depends,  generally  takes  the  sub- 
junctive, though,  except  for  such  dependence,  it  would 
take  the  indicative.     Thus :  — 

3fos  est  At  he  Ills  laudari  in  cdntione  eos,  qui  sint  in  proe- 
Wis  interfecti,  it  is  customary  at  Athens  for  a  eulogy  to  be 
delivered  in  the  pul)lic_  assembly  over  those  who  liave  been 
killed  in  battle  (Cic,  Or,,  44,  151)  ;  in  JlortensiU  memoria 
fait  tanta,  ut,  quae  secum  commentatus  asset,  ea  sine  scrlpto 
verbis  e'lsdem  redderet,  quibus  cogitavisset,  Hortensius  had 
such  a  powerful  memory,  that  without  having  written  them 
down  he  could  give  expression  to  the  things  he  had  turned  over 
in  his  mind,  using  the  same  words  in  which  he  had  thought 
them  (cf.  Cic,  Brut.,  88,  301)  ;  flebat  ut  Alribiades  omnium 
ondos,  quotienscumque  in  puhlicum  prodisset,  ad  se  con- 
verteret,  Alcibiades  used  to  attract  the  gaze  of  all  the  people 
every  time  he  went  out. 

Note,  The  uses  of  the  subjunctive  given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs 
(522  and  523)  are  merely  varieties  of  some  of  the  more  general  uses 
treated  above.  In  many  cases  tliey  might  be  explained  as  Characteristic 
subjunctives.  It  is,  however,  worth  while  to  put  them  into  separate  cate- 
gories, because  the  considerations  given  show  the  reason  why  the  subjunc- 
tive is  chosen  in  the  given  case,  while  in  cases  otherwise  similar,  but  in 
which  these  considerations  are  not  present,  the  indicative  is  often  found 
where  a  Characteristic  subjunctive  might  be  expected. 


330 


SYNTAX. 


Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  tenses  in  subjunctive 
clauses  should  be  observed  :  — 

524.  When  the  thing  said  has  really  the  nature  of  an 
occurrence  (although  it  is  expressed,  as  far  as  the  mood 
goes,  simply  as  an  idea),  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
mark  practically  *  the  same  differences  of  time  as  the 
tenses  of  the  indicative. 

a.  This  is  the  case  with  — 

(1.)  Clauses  of  Result. 

(2.)  Temporal  Clauses  (and  those  developed  from  them). 

(3.)   Clauses  of  Concession,  with  quamvls,  licet,  etc. 

(4.)  The  constructions  of  Indirect  Discourse.     Thus  :  — 

Socrates  tarn  sajnens  erat  ut  Iwdie  quoqite  honoretur,  So- 
crates was  so  wise  tliat  he  is  honored  even  to-<lay  ;  tarn  acriter 
pugnavenint  ut  pacTie  ovwes  occiderentur,  they  fought  so 
desperately  that  nearly  all  were  slain  ;  haec  verba  ita  ecccel- 
lentia  sunt  ut  deo  alicui  tribuerentur,  these  words  are  so 
admirable  that  they  used  to  be  attributed  to  some  god. 

Cum  Athetils  essem,  Zendneni  saepe  audieham,  when  I  was 
at  Athens  I  often  heard  Zeno. 

H6c  dlcit  quod  verum  sit,  he  says  this  because  it  is,  as  he 

thinks,  true. 

625.  But  in  the  various  constructions  of  indirect  dis- 
course, if  the  word  upon  which  a  subjunctive  depends  re- 
fers to  past  time,  the  subjunctive  is  regularly  drawn  into 
the  same  time  (i.  c,  is  made  imperfect  or  pluperfect;. 

Thus  :  — 

Turn  ostendit  quanta  esset  vis  conscienthe.  then  he  showed 

*  In  these  uses  the  subiunctive  has  lost  its  modality  and  gained  in  tense 
quality  (a^  has  been  said  in  483,  c,  ^vith  the  note  before  and  after),  but, 
scientificallv  speakin-,  this  exchange  was  never  quite  complete  enough  to 
make  the  tense  quality  of  this  mood  absolutely  identical  with  tliat  of  Uie 
indicative. 


TENSES   OF  THE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 


331 


how  great  the  power  of  consciousness  of  guilt  is ;  his  rnos  erat 
omnes  qui  ad  msulam  ipsorum  accessissent  statiyn  interfici, 
these  people  had  the  custom  of  immediately  killing  all  who  ap- 
proached their  island;  laudabat  Afrlcanum  Panaetius  quod 
ahstinens  esset,  Panaetius  used  to  praise  Africanus  for  his  self- 
control. 

Note.  This  tendency  arises,  perhaps,  from  a  desire  for  symmetry  of  ex- 
pression. The  same  thing  is  occasionally  shown  in  dependent  indicativ  e 
clauses  (see  470,  3),  and  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  so-called  subjunctive  by 
attraction.  A  similar  attraction  of  tense  occurs  in  English  also,  though 
not  with  the  same  regularity  as  in  Latin.  See  the  second  example  above. 
Also  compare  with  each  other  the  two  forms  in  which  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences  may  be  expressed  :  — 

That  battle  showed  what  unaided  valor  CAN  do. 

That  battle  showed  what  unaided  valor  could  do. 

If  he  were  here,  he  would  do  what  the  occasion  demands. 

If  he  were  here,  he  would  do  what  the  occasion  demanded. 

526.  When  the  thing  said  is  not  thought  of  as  an 
occurrence  at  all,  but  only  as  an  idea  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker  or  writer,  the  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
are  used  in  speaking  of  a  i)resent  (or  future)  situation, 
the  secondary  tense«  in  speaking  of  a  past  situation.  The 
perfect  and  pluperfect  differ  from  the  present  and  imper- 
fect only  in  their  implication  of  completed  action. 

a.  This  is  the  case  with  :  — 

(1.)   Subjunctives  in  Independent  Sentences.* 

(2.)  Conditional  clauses*  (including  Concessions  and  Com- 
parisons). 

(3.)  Clauses  of  Purpose  (whether  pure  purpose  or  substan- 
tive clauses). 

Thus,  hand  facile  discernas,  like  the  English  ^'  you  cannot 
easily  tell,"  ai)plies  to  a  present  situation;  haud  facile  discer- 
neres,  like  -you  could  not  easily  tell,"  appHes  to  a  past  situa- 
tion.    So,  hunc  librum  tibf  do,  ut  eum  legas,  I  give  you  this 

*  The  use  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  to  denote  a  wish  or  a  supposi- 
tion unfulfilled  in  present  time  is  only  an  apparent  exception,  and  has  been 
sufficiently  treated  in  473,  a,  and  477,  a. 


332 


SYNTiVX. 


impp:rative  mood.  —  infinitive. 


333 


book  to  read,  indicates  a  ])resent  purpose ;  hunc  lihmm  tM  dedi, 
ut  eum  legeres,  implies  a  past  purpose  (L  e.,  what  was  the  pur- 
pose at  the  time  of  giving). 

Note  In  these  uses,  as  there  is  no  question  of  the  occurrence  oi  any- 
thin-  there  is  no  definite  time  relation  to  the  moment  of  speaking  or 
writrnff  as  when  the  indicative  is  used,  or  a^  there  is  (by  imphcation)  m 
the  c^es  treated  under  524,  and  the  mood  quality  of  the  subjunctive  is 
much  more  marked  than  its  tense  quality. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

627.  The  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  is  used  to  express  directly 
commands,  requests,  and  advice.     Thus  :  — 

Hue  ades,  come  here  (Verg.,  EcL,  2,  45). 

Nosce  te,  know  thyself  (Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  22,  52). 

Aequam  mementd  servare  mentem,  rememher  to  keep  an 
unruffled  mind  (Hor.,  Carm.,  ii.,  3,  l). 

a.  The  negative  is  ne  for  -not,"  neve  for  "nor"  or  -and 
not."     Nm.  and  neque  are  rare,  and  occur  chiefly  m  poetry. 

h.  The  future  imperative  exi)resses  the  command,  etc.,  more 
mildly  than  the  present.  But  for  the  missing  present  of  scto, 
memmi,  and  of  habe'o  meaning  -  think,"  the  future  forms  are 
used  — sc7fo,  scitote,  memento,  mementote,  haheto,  habetote. 

c.  The  tliird  person  of  the  future  occurs  only  in  laws  and 
wills. 

d.  Foe,  fac  ut,  curd  ut,  are  used  with  a  suhjunctive  to  ex- 
press a  command  mare  strongly ;  velim.  7idUm,  rmUim  (cf.  473, 
c,  and  491),  to  express  one  less  strongly,  than  the  miperative. 
The  future  indicative  is  also  sometimes  used,  as  in  Enghsh. 

e.  Qiim,  why  not,  with  the  present  indicative,  is  sometimes 
equivalent  to  a  command  ;  a.s,  qu'm  accipis  ?  =  take  it  (ht.,  why 
don't  you  take  it?)  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  832). 

628.  Prohibitions  are  expressed  hy  the  present  im- 
perative only  in  poetry,  by  the  future  imperative  only  in 
laws,  wills,  precepts,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Ne  crede  colorJ,  trust  not  the  color  (Verg.,  EcL,  2,  17)  ; 


homlnem  viortuom  in  urbe  ne  sepelito  neve  urito,  give  nei- 
ther burial  nor  cremation  to  the  dead  within  the  city  (Laws 
of  the  XIL  Tables). 

529.     Otherwise  prohibitions  take  :  — 
(1.)  In  the  second  person  :  — 

a.  Ne,  witli  the  perfect  subjunctive  (for  a  particular  case 
only)  ;  as,  hoc  ne  feceris,  Marce,  do  not  do  this  thing,  Mar- 
cus. 

b.  Ne,  with  the  present  subjunctive  (for  a  general  case  only)  ; 
as,  hoc  ne  facias,  do  this  not  (i.  e.,  nobody  must  do  it). 

c.  Noll,  with  the  infinitive ;  as,  noli  oblivisci,  do  not  forget. 

d.  Cave,  with  the  subjunctive ;  as,  cave  festines,  do  not 
hurry. 

e.  Fac  ne,  with  the  subjunctive  (in  colloquial  speech).  Thus  : 
fac  ne  quyl  aliud  cures,  7iisl  ut  convalescds,  do  not  attend 
to  anything  but  the  recovery  of  your  health  (Cic,  Fam.,  xvi., 
11,  1). 

(2.)   In  the  third  person  :  — 

NV,  with  the  present  subjunctive ;  as,  ddnis  impii  ne  pla- 
care  audeant  r/eos,  let  not  the  wicked  presume  to  try  to  pro- 
pitiate tbe  gods  with  gifts. 

Compare  also  472,  2,  and  472,  a,  6. 

INFINITIVE. 

Note.  The  infinitfve  has  the  nature  of  a  noun,  in  that  it  may  be 
used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  various  verbs,  or  in  apposition  ^vith  a  pro- 
noun ;  it  has  the  nature  of  a  verb,  in  that  it  admits  distinctions  of  tense,  is 
modified  by  adverbs,  not  adjectives,  and  like  the  finite  verb  governs  oblique 
cases. 

Subject  of  the  Infixitive. 

530.  The  SUBJECT  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accu- 
sative.    Thus : — 

Ad  rem  publicam  pertinet  me  conservarT,  it  concerns  the 
interests  of  the  state  that  I  should  be  saved  (Cic.)  ;  videhat  id 
ndn  Viosse  fieri,  he  saw  that  it  could  not  be  done  (Nep.). 


334 


SYNTAX. 


a.  But  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  in  lively  narration  in- 
stead of  the  (historical)  perfect  indicative,  and  then  its  subject 
is  in  the  nomij^ative  {historical  injinitiue).     Thus  :  — 

Interim  cottldie  Caesar  Haeduos  frTnmntum  flagitare, 
meanwhile  Caesar  daily  demanded  grain  of  the  Haeduans 
(Caes.,  B.  G,,  1,  16)  ;  nos  pavidl  trepidare  ruetU^  panic- 
stricken  we  hurry  about  in  alarm  (Verg.,  At.,  2,  685). 

IxFixiTivE  AS  Subject. 

631.  The  infinitive,  either  with  or  idthout  a  subject, 
may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb.     Thus :  — 

Difficile  est  amicitiam  manere,  si  d  virtute  defeceris,  it 
is  hard  for  friendship  to  abide,  if  you  fall  from  virtue  (Cic, 
Am.,  11,  37). 

Malics  dedeciis  est  parta  amittere  quam  omriind  non  para- 
visse,  it  is  a  greater  disgrace  to  lose  what  you  have  acquired 
than  not  to  have  made  any  acquisitions  at  all  (Sail.,  lug,,  31, 
17)  ;  Jiumquam  igitiir  est  utile  peccare,  to  do  wrong  is  there- 
fore never  expedient  (Cic,  Off.,  iii.,  15,  64). 

a.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  subject  chiefly  with  est,  erat, 
etc.,  and  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  or  with  certain  imper- 
sonal verbs,  such  as  libet,  licet,  oportet,  videtur,  piget,  pudet, 
placet,  praestat,  refert,  interest,  convenit,  fugit,  iuvat,  etc.* 

b.  The  infinitive  may  of  course  also  be  equivalent  to  a  pred- 
icate nominative  ;  as  ;  — 

ImpTine  qitaelibet  facere,  id  est  regem  esse,  to  do  with 
impunity  whatever  one  will,  that  is  to  be  king  (Sail). 

c.  When  the  infinitive  used  with  licet  and  such  words  has  a 
predicate  adjective  or  noun  with  it,  this  is  generally  put  in 
the  dative,   whether  there    is  a   dative  of    indirect  object   ex- 

*  With  verbs  like  oportet,  which,  strictly  speakin^r,  have  the  subject  in- 
volved in  the  verb  idea  (i.  c,  impersonals  in  the  narrowest  sense),  the  infin- 
itive is  in  orisrin  not  a  subject  infinitive  but  a  complementary  infinitive  (see 
532).  These  infinitives,  however,  became  so  fused  with  the  subject  infin- 
itive, and  thereby  lost  their  resemblance  to  other  complementary  infinitives 
so  thoroughly,  that  it  seems  most  practical  to  treat  them  as  is  here  done. 


COMPLEMENTARY   INFINITIVE.  335 

pressed  with  licet  or  not ;  but  sometimes  it  is  put  in  the  accv. 
sat  we.     Thus  :  — 

Licuit  esse  otioso  Themistocll,  it  was  in  Themistocles' 
power  to  be  inactive  (Cic,  Tusc,  l,  15,  33)  ;  slhi  vltam  flllae 
sua  carwrem  fulsse,  si  Hberae  dc  pudicae  vivere  llcitum 
fulsset,  [he  said]  that  his  daughter's  life  would  have  been 
dearer  to  him  than  his  own,  if  she  could  have  Hved  in  freedom 
and  virtue  (Liv.,  iii.,  50,  6). 

Quod  si  clvl  Ronuind  licet  esse  Gaditanum,  and  if  a  Ro- 
man citizen  may  be  [also]  a  citizen  of  Gades  (Cic,  Ball.,  12,  29). 
For  the  subjunctive  with  impersonals,  see  494,  a,  and  497. 

CoiU'LEMEXTARY   IXFINITIVE. 

632.  The  iufinitive  without  a  subject  is  used  with  sev- 
eral classes  of  words  which  require  a  further  action  of  the 
same  subject  to  complete  the  meaning  (complementary 
infinitive).     Thus:  — 

nfic  qneo^  dicere.  tins  I  can  say  (Cic,  Sen.,  10,  32) ;  haec 
Yitare  cupnuus,  tins  we  wish  to  avoid  (Cic.)  ;  poetas  omnlno 
non  couo^r  Bttingeve,  I  do  not  attempt  to  touch  the  poets  at  all 
(Cic,  c?e  Or.,  ii.,  14,  61). 

a.  ^vAx  are  verbs  denoting  abilfty,  obligatiox,  ixtextion 
or  endeavor  ;    also  verbs  meaning  begin,  continue,  cease,' 

ABSTAIN,  learn  (to),*  REMEMBER  (to),*  UNDERSTAND,  DETER- 
MINE,  DARE,  BE  AFRAID  (to),*  HESFTATE,  BE  WONT. 

^>.  If  a  complementary  infinitive  has  a  predicate  noun  or  ad- 
jective,  this  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject  of  the  verb  on  which 
the  mfinitive  depends.     Thus  : 

Avde  sapiens  esse,  dare  to  be  a  philosopher;  solet  tristis 
vid^i,  he  18  apt  to  seem  sad  ;  iubet  eum  virum  esse  audere, 
he  bids  him  dare  to  be  a  man.     Cf.  also  329,  h. 
For  the  subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  484  fF 
For  the  infinitive  uith  a  subject  after  verbs  of  wishing,  etc.,  see  533,  3. 
•  In  the  meanings  learn,  remember,  be  afraid,  that  (something)  is  so  and 


336 


SYNTAX. 


IxNFINITIVE   WITH   CERTAIN   VERBS. 


337 


Infinitive  as  Object. 

533.  The  infinitive  with  a  subject  is  used  as  the  oiwect 
of  certain  classes  of  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  With  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  knowing,  perceiv- 
ing {verba  sentiendi  et  declarandl)  ;  as  :  — 

Dicit  se  eras  venturum  esse,  lie  says  he  will  come  to-mor- 
I  row  ;  ceiLturuJnes  nihil  temere  agendum  esse  existimabant, 
•^  the  centurions  thought  that  nothing  ought  to  be  done  inconsi- 
derately;  audlvl  te  uenlsse,  I  heard  you  had  come;  sentit 
iyltur  animus  se  .  .  .  sua  vl,  non  allend,  moveri,  the  mind 
therefore  perceives  that  its  activity  is  from  its  own  force,  not 
from  an  outside  force  (Cic,  THsc,  i.,  23,  55). 

(2.)  With  verbs  of  determining,  decreeing,  and  the  like ; 
as  :  — 

Metellus  statuit  alw  more  bellum  gerendum  esse, 
Metellus  determined  that  the  war  must  be  carried  on  in  an- 
other fashion. 

(3.)  With  verbs  of  wishing  (mostly  when  a  new  subject  is 
introduced),  and  with  iuheT)  and  veto.     Thus  :  — 

Hoc  vellm  hitelle(/l,  I  should  like  to  have  this  understood 
(Cic.)  ;  legafl  quod  erant  appellatl  superbiusy  Corinthum 
patres  vestrl  .  .  .  exstinctum  esse  voluerunt,  your  fathers 
insisted  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth  because  thieir  ambas- 
sadors had  been  addressed  rather  arrogantly  (Cic,  Ler/.  Man., 
5,  11) ;  m^  amarl  voln,  I  wish  to  be  loved ;  iubet  nos 
Ppthius  Apollo  noscere  ndsmet  ipsds,  the  Pythian  Apollo  l)ids 
us  know  ourselves  ;  legates  Caesar  discedere  vetuerat,  Cae- 
sar had  forbidden  the  ambassadors  to  depart  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  2, 
20). 

(4.)  With  verbs  of  emotion  and  feeling  ;  as  :  — 

Gaudeo  te  salvom  venisse,  I  am  glad  that  you  have  ar- 
rived safely;  Antdnlus  se  slm'deni  esse  Cat'dinae  gl5riari 
solebat,  Antonius  used  to  boast  that  he  was  like  Catiline  ;  multi 
peccasse  se  ridn  anguntur,  oblurgari  moleste  ferunt^  many 


l)eopIe  are  not  distressed  that  they  have  done  wrong,  but  take  it 
ill  to  ])e  found  fault  with ;  miror  *  te  ad  me  nihil  scribere,  I 
wonder  that  you  do  not  write  to  me  at  all. 

(5.)  With  verbs  of  hoping,  promising,  vowing,  threaten- 
ing, swearing,  the  future  infinitive  is  regularly  used.    Thus  :  — 

Spero  te  id  facturum  esse,  I  hope  you  will  do  so ;  proml- 
sit  s?  venturum  esse,  lie  i)romised  to  come  ;  totam  se  urbem 
deleturum  esse  minatur,  he  threatens  to  destroy  the  entire 
town  ;  ?iuniquam  amlcum  se  Mdnianls  futurum  esse  iurabat, 
he  swore  he  would  never  be  a  friend  to  the  Romans. 

Note.     This  use  of  the  infiuitive  is  the  regular  construction  of  indirect 
discourse.     (See  515  ff.) 

For  the  subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  484  flP. 

Infinitive  with  dicor,  videor,  fertur,  etc. 
634.  Several  verbs,  which  in  the  active  take  an  accusa- 
tive and  infinitive,  are  used  personally  in  the  passive 
rather  than  impersonally,!  the  subject-accusative  of  the 
infinitive  thus  becoming  the  subject-nominative  of  the 
finite  verb.     Thus  :  — 

Dicor  air  probus  esse,  I  am  said  to  be  an  upright  man  ; 
vetamur  h$c  facere,  we  are  forbidden  to  do  this ;  videor 
diem  ilium  videre,  I  seem  to  see  that  day ;  Numae  regnum 
pacatum  esse  traditur,  Numa  s  reign  is  said  to  have  been  a 
peaceful  one. 

«.  A  predicate  word  with  the  '  infinitive  in  this  use  is  of 
course  nominative,  as  in  the  first  example. 

b.  In  poetry,  sometimes  a  predicate  word  is  put  in  the  nomi- 
native   (by   a  Greek   idiom)  after  an    active   verb  of  saying; 

as  I  —— 

PJiasHus   die,   quern  videtis,   hospltes,  ait  fuisse  ndvium 
celerrimus,    that  skiff  you    see,   there   yonder,  friends,  doth 
say,  she  was  of  boats  the  swiftest  in  her  day  (Cat.,  4,  i). 
Cf.  also  substantive  quod  clauses.  540,  4. 

t  The  impersonal  construction  also  occura,  but  chiefly  with  the  g-erun- 
rtive  or  perfect  participle. 


^ 


338 


SYNTAX. 


Other  Uses  of  the  Infinitive. 

635.  The  infinitive  (generally  with  the  interrogative 
ne)  is  used  in  exclamations.     Thus :  — 

Mene  Inceptd  desistere  oictam,  I,  defeated,  abandon  my 
undertaking!  (Verg.,  Aen.,  1,  37);  quemquamUQ  Jiovilnem 
in  animo  instituere,  that  any  man  should  take  the  determi- 
nation !  (Ter.,  Ad.,  38). 

Cf.  the  subjunctive,  with  main  verb  omitted,  482,  d,  and  492,  c. 

636.  The  infinitive  retains  its  original  use  of  express- 
ino"  a  PURPOSE  in  a  few  expressions.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)   With  halted,  do,  minlstro,  in  a  few  passages  ;  as  :  — 

Tantum  habeo  polliceri,  I  have  so  much  to  promise  (Cic, 
Fam.,  i.,  5,  a,  3). 

(2.)  With  paratus  and  suetus  {iiisuetus),  used  as  adjectives. 
Thus  :  — 

Omnia  perpeti  paratus,  ready  to  endure  all;  insuetus 
vera  audire,  unaccustomed  to  hear  the  truth  (Liv.,  xxxi.,  18, 

a.  In  poetry  a  great  many  adjectives  are  used  with  the  infini- 
tive, where  we  might  rather  expect  a  gerund  or  a  subjunctive 
clause.     Thus  :  — 

Cedere  nescius,  unknowing  how  to  yield  (Hor.,  Carm.,  i.,  6, 
6);  avidi  committere  pugnam,  eager  for  the  fray  (Ovid., 
M.,  5,  75)  ;  certa  morl,  bent  upon  death  (Verg.,  Aen,,  4,  564)  ; 
dlgnus  amari,  worthy  to  be  loved  (Verg.,  EcL,  5,  89). 

h.  A  rare  case  of  the  use  of  the  infinitive  as  a  noun  is :  nt 
inter  optime  valere  et  gravissime  aegrotare  nihil  j)rdrsm 
dlcerent  interesse,  so  that  they  said  there  was  absolutely  no  dif- 
ference between  beinpr  perfectly  well  and  most  seriously  ill  (Cic, 
Ftn..  ii.,  13,  43).  Cf.  beate  vivere  vestrum  quale  est !  your 
living  happily,  —  what  does  it  amount  to  ? 

c.  The  infinitive  of  ])urpose  depending  upon  a  verb  is  occa- 
sionally used  by  the  poets  ;  as  :  — 

Proteus  pecus  egit  altos  visere  monies,  Proteus  drove  his 
herds  to  visit  the  high  mountains  (Hor.,  Carm.s  i.,  2,  7). 


INFINITIVE   MOOD. 


339 


Omission  of  the  Ixfixitive. 

537.  Ei<se  (andyV/^vse),*  espeeiaUy  as  elements  of  the 

future   active  and  perfect  passive   infinitives,    are   often 

omitted,  particularly  after  verbs  of  saying  or  thinkino-- 

as :  —  ^  ' 

Vds  cdgndvi  fortes  [esse],  I  have  found  you  brave  ;  adule- 
scenic  ,mrem  gesium  [esse]  oporiuit,  the  young  gentleman 
should  have  been  humored  (Ter.,  Ad„  214) ;  promuit  se  ven- 
tinnim.  [esse],  he  promised  to  come. 

^    «.  In  a  relative  clause,  an  infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted  when 
It  can  be  supplied  from  the  verb  of  the  main  clause  ;  as  :  — 

QuTjs  volult  omnes  interfecit  [sc.  interficere],  he  killed  all 
whom  he  chose  [sc.  to  kill]. 

Tenses  of  the  IxFixiTi\Ti:. 
538.  In  the  constructions  of  indirect  discourse  (real  or 
implied),  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  represent  the  action 
as  past,  present,  or  future,  with  reference  to  the  word  of 
saying.  They  correspond  to  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 
as  follows  :  — 

Pres.  infin.  =  pies,  indie. 

Perf.     -      =past       -     (imperf.,  perf.,  or  pluper.). 
Fut.       "      =fut. 

o.  With  memini  (and  occasionally  other  words)  the  present 
mfinitive  is  used  t«  represent  an  imperfect  indicative  ;  a«,  hZc 
me  memini  dicere,  I  remember  saying  this,  -  thus  denoting 
a  recollection  of  the  progress  of  an  action.  If  the  mere  fact 
isjemembered,  the  perfect  infinitive  is  used;  as,  meministis 
me  Ua  distribuisse  camain,  you  remember  I  divided  the  case 
in  this  way. 

b.  Instead  of  the  future  infinitive  is  often  used  futurum  esse 
ut  (or  fore  ut)  with  a  subjunctive,  -  always  when  the  dven 
verb  has  no  future  participle.     Thus  :  — 

Numquam  putdvi  fore  ut  supplex  ad  t'e  venirem,  I  never 

*  Fore  is  hss  commonly  omitted. 


340 


SYNTAX. 


thought  I  should  come  to  you  as  a  suppliant  (Clc,  Att.^  xvi., 
16  c,  10)  ;  dixit  futurum  esse  ut  poscerent,  he  said  they 
would  demand. 

639.  In  other  constructions  than  those  of  indirect  dis- 
course, only  the  present  infinitive  is  common.  The  perfect 
is  used  to  denote  COMPLETED  ACTION.* 

a.  With  verbs  of  wishing,  obligation,  etc.,  the  perfect  pas- 
sive is  found  sometimes  where  the  present  would  seem  more 
logical ;  as  :  — 

Patres  vestri  Cor'nithum  exstinctum  esse  voluerunt, 
your  fatliers  insisted  that  Corinth  shotdd  be  destroyed  (Cic, 
Leg.  Man.,  5,  ll). 

b.  In  early  Latin,  and  in  the  poets  and  later  writers,  tlie  per- 
fect active  is  also  thus  used  with  various  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

Tendentes  opaco  Felion  imposuisse  Oli/mpo,  struggUng  to 
pile  Pelion  ujwn  shady  Olympus  (Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  4,  52)  ;  bar- 
chdtur  vatesy  magnum  si  pectere  possif  excussisse  denvi.  tlie 
prophetess  rusliea  wihlly  about  to  try  if  she  can  shake  off  the 
divine  influence  from  her  soul  (Verg.,  Aen.,  6,  78). 

SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

540.  There  are  four  classes  of  substantive  clauses,  as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  Subjunctive  clauses  introduced  by  w^,  7?e,  qinn^ 
etc.  (developed  from  purpose  or  result).     (Cf.  484  ff.) 

(2.)  Infinitives  with  subject  accusative  (indirect  dis- 
course).    (Cf.  515  ff.  and  533  ff.) 

(3.)  Indirect  questions.     (Cf.  518.) 

(4.)  Indicative  clauses  introduced  by  qnnd  =  "  the 
fact  that "  (a  variety  of  causal  clauses)  ;  as :  — 

Magnum  beneficium  est  Tidturae,  quod  neoesse  est  mori, 
it  is  a  gi'eat  natural  blessing  that  we  must  die. 

*  Especially  with  expressions  like  satis  habeo^pudet,  corUentus  sum,  melius 
erit,  etc 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES. 


341 


Whicli  of  these  kinds  of  substantive  clauses  should  be  used 
with  any  given  verb  can  generally  be  determined  by  considering 
tlie  nature  of  the  thing  said,  as  follows  :  — 

541.  (1.)  If  the  thing  said  in  the  substantive  clause 
has  the  nature  of  a  statement  (spoken  or  thought),  an 
infinitive  clause  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

JVd/L  putdbant  de  tali  viro  suspicionibus  oportere  iu- 
dicari,  such  a  man  ouglit  not  to  be  judged  [they  thought]  by 
suspicious  circumstances. 

(2.)  If  the  thing  said  involves  a  reason  or  explana- 
tory fact^  the  substantive  clause  takes  quod  ;  as  : 

MUii  qnidem  videntur  homiiiss  hoc  re  nidxime  beluis 
praestare  quod  loqui  possunt,  to  me,  at  least,  men  seem  to 
have  the  advanUige  over  the  brutes  in  this  respect  chiefly,  that 
they  can  s[>eak  (Cic). 

(3.)  If  the  thing  said  is  a  question,  the  substantive 
clause,  as  an  indirect  question,  takes  the  subjunctive; 
as :  — 

Quae  esset  brevissima  via  quaesTuit,  he  asked  what  was 
the  shortest  way. 

(4.)  If  the  thing  said  has  not  the  nature  of  any  of 
these  three  thincrs,  the  substantive  clause  takes  the  sub- 
junctive with  ?/^  ne,  etc.  ;  as  :  — 

Feet  non  invttus  ut  prodessem  multis  rogvUu  tud,  I 
have  been  not  unwilling  to  contribute  to  the  advantage  of 
many  people  at  your  request  (Cic,  Am..  1,  4)  ;  «//  Appl  Claudl 
senecfnfem  accedebat  etiam  ut  caecus  esset,  to  the  old 
age  of  Appius  Claudius  even  blindness  was  added  (Cic.,  Sen., 
6,  16). 


Note.  Verbs  which  in  their  oripnal  use  take  some  particular  form  of 
substantive  clause  often  acquire  shades  of  meaning  which  admit  other 
fornis.  The  possible  u.ses  with  any  griven  verb  are  best  learned  from  the 
dictionary,  and  by  observing  the  practice  of  the  Latin  writers. 


342 


SYNTAX. 


PARTICIPLES. 

In  the  use  of  the  Latin  participles  the  following  points  should 
be  noted  :  — 

642.  Participles  are  followed  by  the  same  cases  and 
constructions  iis  their  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

Quldam,  poeta  nominatus,  some  one,  called  a  poet. 

Catulorum  oblita  leaena,  a  lioness  forgetful  of  her  whelps 
(Verg.,  G.,  3,  245). 

Faventes  rebus  Karthaglniensium^  favoring  the  interests 
of  the  Carthaginians. 

Casus  ahies  visura  marirws,  a  fir  tree  [which  is]  to  see  the 
chances  of  the  deep  (Verg.,  G.,  2,  68). 

Ji drain  opera  saepe  anted  usus,  liaving  used  their  services 
often  before. 

643.  The  present  participle  denotes  something  going 
on  at  the  same  time  as  the  action  of  the  verb  with  which 
it  is  connected.     Thus  :  — 

Tiirnum  fugientem  haec  terra  videbit,  this  land  shall  see 
Turnus  fleeing  (Verg.). 

a.  The  action  denoted  by  a  Latin  present  participle  must 
belong  to  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  main  action.  Only  cer- 
tain j)artici})les  denoting  motion — venienSn  adveniens,  etc. — 
are  used  with  that  kind  of  loose  reference  to  present  time  which 
the  English  participle  often  lias.  Thus  we  say,  *'  hearing  this 
sound,  I  ran  quickly,"  where  the  Roman  could  not  use  a  present 
participle,  but  would  take  some  other  form  of  expression  ;  as, 
qi(d  sonitu  audito  currebam  celeriter,  or  cum  hunc  sonituni 
audivissem,  etc. 

b.  The  present  participle  depending  upon  a  verb  of  saying  or 
perceiving  is  almost  equivalent  to  an  infinitive,  but  is  a  more 
lively  form  of  expression.  See  fugientem  in  the  example 
above. 

Cf.  Laelium  et  Scljiwnem  faclmus  admlrantis,  I  represent 
Laelius  and  Scipio  expressing  their  wonder  (Cic,  Sen.,  1,  3). 


PARTICIPLES. 


343 


644.  The  perfect  participle  denotes  something  already 
finished  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb  with  which  it  is 
connected.     Thus :  — 

Qui,  missus  ab  Argls,  .  .  .  Itald  coiisederat  urbe,  who,  sent 
from  Argos,  .  .  .  had  settled  in  the  Italian  city  (Verg.,  Ae., 
10,  779). 

a.  Tile  perfect  participle  of  many  deponent  verbs  has  almost 
the  force  of  a  present  participle.  So,  commonly,  arbitrdtics, 
rat  us,  solltus,  usus,  veritus.  Also  ausus,  comnwrdtus,  ftsus, 
secutus,  and  others. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponent  verbs  is  sometimes  used 
in  a  j^usslne  sense ;  as,  experta  virtus,  valor  that  has  been  tried. 

iSOTE.  Except  in  the  case  of  deponent  verbs,  an  active  perfect  parti- 
ciple has  to  be  supplied  in  Latin  by  chanj^ing  the  construction  to  the 
passive  (Ablative  Absolute),  or  by  a  temporal  or  causal  clause  (especially 
a  clause  introduced  by  cum,  postqua/n,  or  dum). 

646.  The  FUTURE  participle  denotes  something  which 
is  to  take  place  after  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb  with 
which  it  is  connected.     Thus  :  — 

Magna  pars  Itoviinum  est,  quae  navigatura  de  tempestdte 
non  cogUat,  there  is  a  large  part  of  mankind  who  when  on  the 
point  of  tiking  a  voyage  do  not  think  about  the  state  of  the 
weather. 

a.  The  future  participle  thus  agreeing  with  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun is  rare  in  good  prose.  In  the  poets  and  later  writers 
(including  Livy)  it  frequently  denotes  likelihood,  intention,  or 
purpose.     Thus :  — 

An  sese  medios  moriturus  in  hostes  inferat.  or  shall  he 
plunge  into  the  midst  of  the  foe,  to  meet  his  death  (Verg., 
^e.,  9,  398). 

646.  The  present  and  perfect  participles  are  often  used 
as  attributive  adjectives  (or  as  nouns),  and  can  even  be 
compared,  like  other  adjectives.     Thus :  — 

Urbs  florentissima,  a  most  flourishing  city. 

Vir  spectatus,  a  man  proved  worthy. 


344 


SYNTAX. 


Male  parta  Tnale  dilabuiitur^  ill  gotten  gains  slip  away  in 
the  same  bad  fashion  (Cic,  Phil.^  ii.,  27,  65). 

Quo  paratior  lul  usum  for  etisein  pro  nipt  lorque  esse  possim, 
that  1  may  be  better  prepared  and  more  ready  for  forensic  prac- 
tice (Cic,  Caec.,  13,  41). 

547.  A  present  or  a  perfect  participle  is  also  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  a  predicate,  where  in  English  a  clause  (or 
phrase)  would  be  found  denoting  an  accompanying  cir- 
cumstance^ a  cause  or  hindrance^  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Sanguis  in  totum  corjuis  distrlbuitur  per  vends  in  omnes 
partes  corporis  pertinentes,  the  blood  is  distributed  to  the 
whole  body,  through  veins  which  extend  into  all  parts  of  the 
body  (Cic,  N.  D.,  ii.,  55,  137)  ;  Caesar  expl5ratis  regionibus 
albente  caeld  omnes  copids  castrts  eduxit,  Caesar,  having  re- 
connoitred the  country,  led  all  his  forces  forth  from  camj>  as 
day  was  breaking  (Caes.,  B.  C,  1,  68). 

a.  This  is  the  regular  use  of  the  ])articiple  in  the  ablative 
absolute  construction  (cf.  422),  as  in  the  last  example. 

h.  Sometimes  a  participle  is  made  to  agree  with  a  noun,  when 
the  participle  itself  contains  the  main  idea.  In  English  a  noun 
(especially  one  in  "  ing  ")  is  used  instead  of  the  participle,  and 
its  relation  to  the  other  noun  is  expressed  by  ''  of."     Thus :  — 

Hae  litterae  recitatae  magnum  lUctum  fecerunt,  the 
reading  of  this  letter  caused  great  grief  (Liv.)  ;  ab  condita 
urbe  ad  liberatam,  from  the  founding  of  the  city  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic  [literally,  to  its  freeing]  (Liv.). 

Cf.  also  the  use  of  the  gerundive  (550,  especially  d). 

c.  Beside  its  regular  use  in  forming  the  compound  tenses  of 
the  verb  (see  211),  the  perfect  participle  is  sometimes  used  with 
habeo  almost  in  the  sense  of  the  English  compound  tenses.  In 
Latin,  however,  the  two  parts  of  the  expression  retain  their  own 
force  more  distinctly  than  in  English,  and  the  use  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  words  of  knowing  and  the  like.     Thus  :  — 

Clodl  animum  perspectum  habeo,  I  have  thoroughly  In- 
vestigated Clodius's   state    of   mind   [literally,  I  hold  it  in  an 


PARTICIPLE.  — -  GEKUND   AND   GERUNDIVE.  345 

investigated  condition].  Cf.  (Plant.,  Cap.,  345)  transactum 
reddet  omne.  he  wiU  do  the  thing  up  brown  [literally,  he  will 
return  it  finished],  and  (in  Terence  and  Cicero)  mlssum  facio, 
1  let  go,  dismiss. 

GERUND  and  GERUNDIVE. 
548.  (1.)  The  GERUND  is  a  verbal  noun  used  in  the 
oblique  cases  with  the  same  force  which  the  infinitive 
has  as  subject  (or  object)  of  a  verb,  and  governing  the 
cases  like  any  other  part  of  the  verb.  Its  meaning  is 
active,  ° 

(2.)  The  GERUNDIVE  is  a  verbal  adjective  denoting. 
nece.,ity  propriety,  or  duty,  or,  in  the  oblique  cases,  talT- 
infe'  the  place  of  the  gerund  under  certain  circumstances. 
lu  the  hrst  of  these  uses  it  is  passwe ;  in  the  second, 
though  seen.ingly  passive,  it  is  reaUy,  like  the  gerund, 
active.  °  ' 

549.  E.va„,ples  of  the  use  of  the  gerund  are  as  fol- 
lows  :  — 

Metus  parendi  sibi,  f.ar  of  obeying  him  ;  parcendo  victis, 
by  spanng  the  conquered  ;  effer,jr  studio  patres  vestros  .  . 
Videndi.  I  am  carried  away  with  a  desire  to  see  your  fathers 
(Cic,  ,Se«..  23,  83). 

550.  Instead  of  the  yerund  with  an  object,  in  the 
case  of  transitive  verbs  the  yerundive  construction  is  com- 
monly used  ;  i.  e.,  the  object  is  put  in  the  case  which  the 
gerund  would  have  had,  and  the  gerundive  is  made  to 
agree  with  it.     Tims  :  — 

Joj,.ilium  scrlbendae  epistulae,  the  purpose  of  writing  a 
Hter  (i^eruM.  senbe„./l  episMu.n)  y  a,J  defendendam  1^ 
ZTs  1  °f  P"f  ^"'i^  Capua  d^u^-es  Ron^nos  abstrakit,  he 

raws  off   the   Ito.nan    general,  from    the   siege   of  Capua   to 

XSr  c  "^""^  ^^""""' "'  "^"""'"""^  ^^---^  ot 

the  sake  of  repamng  the  fleets  (Gerund,  reparandl  classes). 


346 


SYNTAX. 


a.  The  gerundive^  rather  than  the  genind^  is  regularly  used 
with  the  verbs  utor,  fnior,  funfjor,  potior^  vescor^  which  in  early 
times  took  the  accusative  where  later  usage  employed  the  abla- 
tive.    Thus  :  — 

Qvod  ilia  aetas  tnagls  ad  haec  utenda  (rather  than  ad 
his  utendmn)  idoneastj  because  that  time  of  life  is  better 
suited  to  these  employments  (Ter.,  Heauf.y  133)  ;  iustitiae 
fruendae  (rather  than  iustitia  fruendi)  causa,  for  the  sake 
of  enjoying  justice  ;  hostes  in  spem  potiundorum  castrorum 
(rather  than  potiundi  castris)  venerant,  the  enemy  had  come 
into  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp. 

h.  If  ambiguity  would  arise  (through  confusion  of  the  gender) 
from  the  use  of  the  gerundive,  the  gerund  is  used.  So  especially 
when  the  object  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.     Thus  :  — 

Aliquid  faciendi  ratio,  a  principle  of  doing  something 
(Cic.)  ;  artem  et  vera  et  falsa  diiudicandi,  the  art  of  distin- 
guishing the  true  and  the  false  (Cic). 

c.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  sometimes  occurs  with  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  rarely  also  with  a  noun  de- 
pending upon  it,  where  it  looks  at  first  sioht  like  a  gerundive 
irregularly  used.     Thus  :  — 

Quoniam  tui  videndi  est  copia,  since  there  is  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  you  [said  of  a  woman]  (Plant.)  ;  in  castra  oenerunt 
sui  purgandi  rausd,  they  came  to  the  camp  for  the  sake  of 
excusing  themselves  [lit.,  of  their  own  excusing]  (Liv.)  ;  non 
vereor  ne  quis  tne  haec  vestri  adhortandi  causa  indgnijice 
loqui  existimetj  I  am  not  afraid  any  one  will  think  I  exaggerate 
this  to  encourage  you  (Liv.,  xxi.,  41,  l)  :  exempl5rum  eligendi 
potesta^,  the  power  of  [the]  choosing  [of]  examples  (Cic). 

d.  The  gerund  and  gerundive  represent  sometliing  as  not  yet 
completed  or  accomplished.  If  something  completed  is  spoken 
of,  the  perfect  participle  must  be  used.     Thus  :  — 

SUspicio  regni  adpetendi,  a  suspicion  of  aiming  at  royal 
power ;  suspicio  regni  adpetiti,  a  suspicion  of  having  aimed 
at  royal  power ;  ante  conditam  condendamve  iirbem,  be- 


GERUXD   AND   GERUNDIVE. 


347 


fore  the  founding  of   the   city  was   accomplished   or  planned 
(Liv.,  1.,  praef.,  6). 

Cases  of  the  Geruxd  and  GERmn)ivE. 
651.  The  GENITIVE  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  with 
causa  (or  (/ratia)  *  and  the  accusative  of  the  o-erund  or 
ThuT-^   with   ad  are   often  used  to  denote^ purpose, 

Postremo  [CatiTma]  dissimulandi  causa  vel  sui  expur- 
gandi .  .  tn  sendtum  venU,  iinally,  for  the  purpose  of  hiding 
[the  real  state  of  the  case]  or  of  clearing  himself,  Catiline  came 
into  the  senate  (Sail.,  Cat.,  31,  4)  ;  ad  castra  facienda,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  camp  (Cic). 

a.  The  DATIVE  of  the  gerundive  is  used  to  express  ^purpose, 
after  names  of  offices,  and  words  denoting  election  or  appoint- 
ment.     Ihus  :  —  ^ 

Decemvir-,  legibus  scribendis.  a  co.nmission  of  ten  for  wrio 
mg  out  tl,e  laws  ;  tHumviros  agro  dando  creat,  he  appoints  a 
committee  of  three  for  assigning  land  (Liv.,  3,  1,  6). 
Note.     Otherwiae  the  dative  of  both  gerund  and  gemldive  is  rare 
h.  The  ACCUSATIVE  Of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  (except  in 
the  use  treated  under  562,  2)  is  found  only  with  the  prepositions 
ad  and  (occasionally)  ante,  in  or  ob,  or  (in  verse)  inter.     See 
above  examples. 

c.  The  AHLATivE  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  with 
preposihoDs,   and   to   denote    cause,    manner,    or   instrument. 

D-e  c-onsnUUn  petendo,  in  regard  to  being  a  candidate  fop 
the  oonsulsh.p ;  currendo  et  luctando  exercere,  to  exercise 
by  runnmg  and  wrestling. 

0th  EB  Uses  of  the  Gerundive. 

JS^^^f^'^T  ^"""'"^  the  periphrastic  conjugation  (see 
-^^y,  2),  to  denote  what  mu^t  be  done,  or  ought  to  he 

reLtWetrr™/?  '''"""l'  '^"*^'  P''^^"'  "^"^  *^«  ^"if™  l'e<«>«e  th« 
gemt.ve  ..  aln>c«t  always  the  more  emphatic  of  the  two  worda  (see  585). 


348 


SYNTAX. 


GERUND   AND   GERUNDIVE. — SUPINE. 


349 


9 


done^  and  serving  as  a  substitute  for  the  gerund  (see  650 
and  651),  tne  gerundive  is  chiefly  used  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  As  an  attributive  adjective,  meaning  ''  worthy  of,'' 
and  the  like.     Thus  :  — 

[^Prudentia]  qitae  est  rerum  expetendanim  fugienda- 
TMrnque  scientia,  prudence^  which  is  the  knowledge  of  things 
to  be  desired  and  things  to  be  shunned  (Cic,  Off.y  i.,  43,  153)  ; 
admiranda  fruf/dlitds,  an  admirable  frugality  (Cic,  Deiot,  9, 
26). 

(2.)  As  a  predicate  adjective  denoting  purpose,  after 
words  meaning  to  give^  deliver^  agree  for  y  undertake^  re- 
ceive^  and  some  others.     Thus  :  — 

Testamentum  tibt  tradet  legendiun,  he  will  hand  his  will 
to  you  to  read  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  5,  51)  ;  attrlbuit  nos  truci- 
dandos  Cethegd,  he  assigned  us  to  Cethegus  to  be  butchered 
(Cic,  Cat.,  iv.,  6,  13). 

(3.)  The  neuter  is  sometimes  used  impersonally  (espe- 
cially in  early  Latin  and  the  poets)  governing  a  case. 
Thus  :  — 

Nun/i  pacem  orandum,  nunc  .  .  .  arraa  reponendum 
et  bellum  exitiale  cavendum,  now  we  must  beg  for  peace, 
now  lay  aside  arms  and  avoid  murderous  war  (Sil.) ;  cum  su5 
cuique  iudicio  sit  utendum,  since  each  must  use  his  own 
judgment;  quam  nobis  quoque  ingrediundum  sit,  [a  road] 
which  we  too  must  travel  (Cic,  Sen.,  2,  6). 

SUPINE. 

Note.  The  supine  is  found  in  a  comparatively  small  number  of  verbs. 
For  a  list  of  them  see  Draeger's  Historische  Syntax,  vol.  ii.,  p.  859  ff. 

653.  The  supine  is  a  verbal  noun  with  active  meaning, 
used  only  in  the  accusative  and  ablative,  as  follows  :  — 

654.  The  accusative  of  the  supine  is  used  :  — 

(1.)  To  form  the  future  passive  infinitive  with  t/i  (see 
211,  a).     Thus  :  — 


Alt  Kartliaginem  captum  iri,  he  says  Carthage  is  going  to 
be  (or  will  be)  taken. 

Note.     Here  In  is  used  impersonally,  and  the  apparent  subject  of  the  in- 
finitive Ls  really  the  object  of  the  supine. 

(2.)  With  verbs  of  motion  (expressed  or  implied),  to 
denote  purpose.     Thus  :  — 

Legdti  venerunt  questum  iniurias  et  res  repetitum, 
ambassadors  came  to  complain  of  wrongs  and  demand  restitu- 
tion (Liv.) ;  cubltum  dlscessimus,  we  parted  for  the  night  [lit., 
to  lie  down]  (Cic,  Re  Pub.,  vi.,  10,  10)  ;  pueirum  misit  roga- 
tiim,  quid  veUet,  he  sent  a  boy  to  ask  what  he  wished. 

a.  So  metaphorically,  dare  nuptum,  collocdre  nuptum,  give 
in  marriage,  sessum  recipere,  offer  a  seat,  perditum  Ire,  go  to 
ruin. 

b.  The  accusative  of  the  supine  is  especially  rare  with  an  ob- 
ject, as  in  the  first  example  above. 

555.  The  ABLATIVE  of  the  supine  is  used  in  classical 
Latin  only  as  an  ablative  of  specification  (see  412), 
chiefly  with  the  adjectives  facllis,  difficilis  ;  iucundus, 
iniucvndus  ;  honestus,  turpi s ;  credihilis,  incredihilis  ; 
mtrdbilis,  utilis,  optimus  ;  and  with  the  nouns  fas.,  nefds^ 
opus.     Thus  :  — 

Rem  .  .  .  facta  facnem,  a  thing  easy  to  do  (Ter.,  Heaut, 
704) ;  mtrdbile  dictu,  wonderful  to  tell  (Verg.,  G.,  2,  30)  ;  in. 
credibile  Tmnwrdtu,  incredible  to  relate  (Sail.,  Cat.,  6,  2)  ;  hdc 
fas  est  dictu.  this  is  a  right  thing  to  say  (Cic,  Tusc,  v., 
13,  38) ;  dictu  opus  est,  it  must  be  said  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  941). 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  following  supines  occurs  in  classical 
Latm  :  audltu,  cdgnitu,  dictu,  fact u,  intellectu,  inventu,  memo- 
rdtu,  scltu,  vlsu. 

b.  In  Livy  and  later  writers  dlgmts  and  indignus  occur  with 
the  ablative  of  a  supine ;  as,  indlgnum  reldtu, 

c.  The  gerundive  with  ml  is  more  common  vnih.  facUis,  diffi- 
cilis, and  iucumlus,  and  the  infinitive  is  also  used  ;  as,  facile 
est  invenire,  it  is  easy  to  find.     Blgmis  takes  qui  with  the 


350 


SYNTAX. 


subjunctive  in  classical  Latin,  or  the  ablative  of  a  noun.     (Cf. 
also  536,  a.) 

The  Different  Constructions  of  Purpose. 

556.  The  following  eight  ways  of  expressing  purpose 
are  possible  in  Latin  :  — 

(1.)   Subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne, 

(2.)  "  "     a  relative. 

(3.)  Gerund  (or  gerundive)  with  ad. 

(4.)        ''  ''  ''   causa  {gratia), 

(5.)  Accusative  of  the  gerundive. 

(6.)  Future  participle. 

(7.)   Supine. 

(8.)  Infinitive. 

a.  Of  these  the  subjunctive  with  ut  or  qui  is  the  common 
and  regular  construction  (for  the  distinction  between  ut  and  qui 
see  482,  2,  note).  The  gerund  and  gerundive  constructions 
(with  ad  or  causa)  are  used  only  in  short  expressions,  and  rarely 
if  the  verb  of  purpose  has  any  further  modifier  than  an  object 
and  an  adverb  of  manner.  The  gerundive  without  ad  or  cama 
is  used  only  with  the  verbs  given  under  552,  2.  The  future 
participle  belongs  mostly  to  late  Latin,  and  is  said  not  to  occur 
in  Cicero  at  all.  The  supine  is  used  only  as  in  554.  The 
infinitive  is  poetical  and  not  common.     (Cf.  536.) 

Adverbs. 

557.  Latin  adverbs  are  used,  in  general,  like  English 
adverbs,  to  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

a.  The  adverbs  in  -e  and  -ter  (from  adjectives  of  the  second 
and  third  declensions  respectively)  are  usually  adverbs  of  man- 
ner ;  as,  care,  dearly ;  praecldre,  nobly  ;  auddcter,  boldly ;  levi- 
ter^  lightly. 

h.  The  adverbs  in  -um  and  -im  (originally  accusatives),  are 
usually  adverbs  of  quantity  or  amount  ;  as,  inultum,  much ; 
paulum,  a  little ;  partim,  partly.  They  therefore  modify  verbs 
chiefly. 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PURPOSE.  —  ADVERBS.         351 

c.  The  adverbs  in  -o  (originally  ablatives)  are  usually  adverbs 
of  DEGREE  OF  DIFFERENCE  ;  as,  miUtd.  by  far,  much  ;  paulo, 
(by)  a  little.  They  therefore  modify  adjectives  and  adverbs 
chiefly. 

Note  1.  The  last  two  classes  tend  to  pass  into  each  other,  so  that  the 
difference  is  sometimes  so  subtle  as  to  seem  wholly  arbitrary.  Cf.primum^ 
first  (in  a  series),  to  begin  with,  with  primo,  first  (in  time),  in  the  first 
place. 

Note  2.  Apparent  exceptions  to  the  above  are  the  adverbs  of  emphatic 
assertion,  sane,  vera,  profecto,  certo,  and  others,  though  generally  they  are 
adverbs  of  manner  whicli  have  lost  their  original  meanings. 

d.  Of  the  words  for  ''so,"  ita  and  (more  emphatic)  sic  are 
adverbs  of  manner,  and  modify  verbs  ;  tarn  is  an  adverb  of  de- 
gree, and  modifies  chiefly  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

e.  Ut  .  .  .  ita,  "as  .  .  .  so,"  are  often  equivalent  to  "  al- 
thou«rh  .  .  .  yet  "  (one  member  of  the  comparison  being  by 
implication  a  negative).     Thus  :  — 

Ut  quies  certdminum  erat,  ita  ab  appardtu  operum  .  .  . 
7ii/iU  cessdtum,  though  there  was  a  cessation  of  conflict,  yet 
there  was  no  iiiterru])tion  in  the  construction  of  fortifications 
(Liv.,  xxi.,  8,  1). 

/.  With  a  word  or  phrase  explaining  something  said,  ut  is 
sometimes  ambiguous.  It  may  be  "seeing  that,"  giving  a  rea- 
son, or  "  considering  that,"  indicating  a  limitation,  and  the  con- 
text has  to  decide.     Thus  :  — 

Epickannl,  acutl  nee  instdsi  hominis,  ut  SiculT,  of  Epi- 
charmus,  a  clever  and  witty  man  as  [you  would  expect  of]  a 
Sicilian  (Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  8,  15)  ;  Spurius  Maelius  .  .  .  ut  illis 
temporihus  praedives,  Spurius  Maelius,  a  very  rich  man  for 
those  times  (Liv.,  iv.,  13,  l). 

g.  Of  the  words  for  "  not,"  non  indicates  simple  negation,  ne 
negatives  commands  or  purposes,  and  haud  is  used  with  single 
words  and  phrases,  especially  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

h.  In  Latin  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used,  characterizing 
the  person  who  does  a  thing  (especially  his  state  of  mind), 
where  English  prefers  an  adverb  of  manner  or  order.  Thus  :  — 

Itaque  fein  non  in  Vitus,  ut  jrrddessem  mvltis  tied  rogdtu,  I 


R 


352 


SYNTAX. 


have  not  unwillingly  labored  at  your  request  for  the  benefit  of 
many  (Cic,  A/n.,  i.,  4)  ;  quid  prudens  ef  sciens  a//  interitum 
ruis,  why  do  you  rush  to  destruction  knowingly  and  with  your 
eyes  open  ?  hostes  rari  se  dstendere  coepenint^  the  enemy  be- 
gan to  show  themselves  here  and  there  ;  priori  Remo  au- 
gurium  venlsse  fertur,  an  omen  is  said  to  have  come  to  Remus 
first. 

^.  With  words  like  primus  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning 
according  as  (1)  the  adjective  agreeing  with  the  subject^  or 
(2)  the  adjective  agreeing  with  the  object,  or  (3)  the  adverb  is 
used.     Thus  :  — 

Ille  primus  aedem  hie  posiiit,  he  was  the  first  to  build  a 
temple  here. 

Ille  primam  aedem  hie  posuit,  he  built  the  first  temple  here 
[some  one  else  may  have  built  another], 

Ille  primurQ  aedem  h'lc  posuit,  he  first  built  a  temple  here 
[and  then  did  something  else]. 

Prepositions. 

558.  The  prepositions  originally  expressed  relations 
of  place,,  and  then  passed  into  other  relations. 

A  synopsis  of  their  use  may  be  given  as  follows  :  — 

Prepositions  with  Accusative. 

559.  (1.)  Ady  towards,  to  (opposite  of  ab).  Place:  ad 
urbern  ire,  to  go  to,  or  towards,  the  city  ;  ad  urbem  esse,,  to  be 
near  the  city.  Time  :  ad  senectutem,,  to,  or  till,  old  age ;  ad 
vespenim,  towards  evening.  Number  :  ad  7?rdia  tria,*  towards, 
or  about,  t!n*ee  thousand.  Metaphorical  relations  :  ad  vltam 
bedtam,  towards,  or  with  regard  to,  a  happy  life ;  ad  tantum 
bellum,  towards,  or  for,  so  great  a  war ;  ad  me  scrlbere,  to  write 
to  me ;  ad  oppidtcm  capiendum,  towards,  or  for  the  purpose  of, 
taking  the  town  ;  ad  voluntdtem  meam^  according  to  my  wish  ; 
ad  hunc  modum  serirw  est  instltUtus,  the  conversation  was 
started  in  this  fashion. 

*  In  the  historians  and  later  writers  ad  is  also  used  as  an  adverb  with 
numbers.  Thus :  ad  duorum  milium  numenUj  a  number  of  about  two 
thousand  (Caes.). 


PREPOSITIONS   WITH   ACCUSATIVE.  353 

(2.)  Adversus  (less  commonly  adversum)  [p.  p.  of  advertere ; 
i.  e.,  ad  and  vertere,  to  turn],  turned  towards,  towards,  against, 
facing.  Place  :  adversus  aegrum,  opposite  the  sick'^man ;' 
adversum  speculum,  before  the  mirror.  Metaphorically: 
quouam  viodd  me  gererem  adversus  Caesarem,  how  should  I 
have  conducted  myself  towards  Caesar.?  adversum  legem, 
against  the  law ;  impetus  adversus  montem,  an  attack  against! 
or  ui)on,  the  mountain. 

(3.)  Ante,  before  (opposite  of  post).  Place  (used  only  with 
objects  at  rest)  :  ante  aedls,  before  the  house ;  ante  se,  before 
himself ;  ante  oculds,  before  one's  eyes,  or  face.  Time  :  ante 
hiemem,*  before  winter ;  ante  lucem,  before  dayhght.  Meta- 
phorically :  ante  alias  p^dcherrima  omjils,  fair  before,  or 
beyond,  all  others ;  ante  omnia,  before,  or  above,  all  things! 

(4.)  Apud,  near  (primarily  of  persons  and  used  only  where 
no  motion  is  imi)hed).  Apud  Caesarem,  before  Caesar,  or  at 
Caesar's  house ;  hdc  est  apud  Graecos  prope  gldridsius  quam 
Romae  triumplmsse,  this  is  almost  more  glorious  among  the 
Greeks  than  a  triumj,!!  is  at  Rome ;  belldtxcm  apud  Actium,  a 
battle  was  fought  at  Actium;  magna  BiVM^  p>lebem  gratia,  of 
great  mfluence  with  the  commons. 

(5.)  Circum  (later  also  circa),  around,  about.  Place  :  terra 
circum  axem^  se  conveHit,  the  earth  revolves  around  its  axis 
(Cic,  Acad  n.,  39,  123)  ;  capiUus  circum  caprct  reiectus,  hair 
thrown  back  about  the  head  ;  circum  haec  loca,  about  these 
places;  Circa  ./bn/..^,  about  the  forum  (QuTnt.) ;  paucae  quae 
circum  Ulcn.  essent,  the  few  [attendants]  about  her  (Ter.). 

(().)  CUrc^ter.f  about  (very  rare  of  place  and  mostly  used  of 
time).     Cu-citer  meridiem,  about  noon. 

(7  )  Ciira  (more  rarely  eis),  on  this  side  of  (opposite  of 
ultra).  Place  :  citra  Rh'enum,  on  this  side  of  the  Rhine ;  cis 
Taunnn^  t^s  side  the  Taurus  mountain.  Time  (post-classical, 
as  also  m  Plautus) :  cis  paucds  dies,  within  a  f.w  days.  Mfta- 
PHORicALLY  (post  classical)  :  citra  virtutem,  without  virtue! 

i2)l?bt  "^  "'^"  ""'^  ^P^^P'>  ^"^"^  ^-^'  ^-^-  -r^te 

t  More  conunou  as  an  adverb. 


354 


SYNTAX. 


(8.)  Contra,  opposite,  against.  Place  :  contra  Italiam, 
opposite  Italy ;  contra  Massiliajn,  off  Marseilles ;  contra 
medium  porticum,  facing  the  middle  of  the  portico ;  contra 
hostem  fdssam  facere,  to  make  a  ditch  facing  the  enemy; 
ducere  contra  hostes,  to  lead  against  the  enemy.  Metaphor- 
ically :  contra  senfentlam,  contrary  to  one's  opinion  ;  coiiiu' 
rdtidnem  facere  contra  Caesarem,  to  make  a  conspiracy  r.gainst 
Caesar. 

(9.)  Erga,  towards  (chiefly  of  feelings  towards  persons,  and 
generally  friendly).  Erga  illuyn  hemgmis,  kin<lly  disposed 
towards  him  ;  dlv'uui  honltas  erga  hmnlnes,  the  divine  goodness 
towards  maniand  ;  odium  erga  rerjem,  hatred  towards  the 
king  ;  erga  meam  salutem,  in  regard  to  my  safety  (Cic.) 

(10.)  Extra,  outside  of,  beyond  (opposite  of  intra).  Place: 
extra  Feloponnesum,  outside  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  extra 
praainciam,  beyond  the  province.  Metaphorically  :  extra 
numencm,  beyond  the  number ;  extra  modmn,  beyond  bounds ; 
extra  unum  te^  except  you  alone. 

(11.)  Infra,  on  the  under  side,  below  (opposite  of  supra). 
Infra  oppldum,  below  the  town ;  infra  Injimos  homines,  be- 
neath the  lowest  of  mankind  (Ter.). 

(12.)  Inter,  between,  among.  Inter  Fadum  et  Alpes,  be- 
tween the  Po  and  the  Alps ;  inter  primos,  among  the  first ; 
inter  has  turhas,  in  the  midst  of  these  disturbances  ;  inter 
noctem,  during  the  night. 

(13.)  Intra,  inside  of,  within  (o])posite  of  extra).  Intra 
parietes  meds,  within  my  walls ;  intra  annos  qiilnque,  within 
five  years  ;  intra  centum.,  less  than  a  hundred. 

(14.)  iTixtd,  close  to,  near.  luxta  eum  castra  posuit,  he 
pitched  his  camp  close  to  him  ;  iuxta  deos,  next  to  the  gods ; 
iuxta  sedltldnem,  next  thing  to  an  insurrection. 

(15.)  Ob  (before,  as  an  obstruction,  but  mostly  used  in  the 
metaphorical  sense  '*  on  account  of  ").  Mors  ob  oculos  versdta 
est,  death  danced  before  his  eyes  ;  ob  stultltlam,  on  account  of, 
or  through,  folly ;  ob  eam  rem,  on  that  account. 

(16.)  Penes,  in  the  possession,  power,  or  hands  of.  Penes 
eos  victoria  est,  the  victory  is  with  them  ;  penes  reyem,  in  the 
king's  power. 


PREPOSITIONS   WITH   ACCUSATIVE. 


355 


(17.)  Per,  through.  Place:  per  forum  Ire,  to  go  through 
the  forum ;  per  7nare,  over  tlie  sea.  Time  :  per  hlemem, 
through  the  winter ;  per  ind atlas,  during  the  truce.  Met- 
aphorically :  per  vds,  through  your  means  ;  per  me  licet, 
you  may,  for  all  I  care  ;  per  ludum,  in  sport.  Ix  assevera- 
tions :  per  deds,  by  the  gods  ;  per  tuamfidem,  by  your  honor. 

(18.)  Pone,  behind  (rare  in  classical  Latin).  Pone  me,  be- 
hind me ;  p5ne  castra,  behind  the  camp. 

(19.)  Post,  behind,  after  (opposite  of  ante).  Place  :  post 
me,  behind  me  ;  post  inontem,  behind  the  mountain.  Time  : 
post  paucos  dies,*  after  a  few  days  ;  post  urbem  condltam, 
after  the  founding  of  the  city. 

(20.)  Praeter,  along  by,  beyond  (most  common  in  the 
metiipliorical  meanings  "beyond,"  "except,"  "contrary  to"). 
Praeter  castra  ducere,  to  march  by,  or  beyond,  the  camp  ; 
praeter  aetdtem  stultus,  foolish  beyond  his  years;  praeter 
spetn,  contrary  to  expectation ;  praeter  imperdtds  pecunias, 
besides  the  money  ordered ;  nrdli  vestltus  praeter  j^elles,  no 
clothing  except  skins. 

(21.)  Prope,  near.  Prope  oppidum,  near  the  town  ;  prope 
ms,  near  me. 

(22.)  Propter,  near  (but  chiefly  in  the  metaphorical  sense 
"on  account  of").  Propter  hanc  statuam,  near  this  statue; 
propter  frujora,  on  account  of  the  cold  ;  propter  me,  on  my 
account. 

(23.)  Secundum,  following,  after  (participial  form  from  se- 
quor).  Place  :  tte  secundum  7ne,  come  after,  or  behind,  me  ; 
secundum  mare  superum,  along  the  upper  [Adriatic]  sea! 
Time  :  secundum  ludds,  after  the  sports  ;  secundum  hunc 
diem,  after  this  day.  Metaphorically  :  secimdum  deds, 
next  to  the  gods  ;  secundum  ndturam,  according  to  nature. 

(24.)  Sujml,  on  the  upper  side  of,  above  (opposite  of  tnfrd). 
Place  :  supra  terram,  above  the  earth.  Number  :  supra 
septem  mllla,  more  than  seven  thousand.  Metaphorically  : 
supra  lef/es,  above  the  laws  ;  supra  humunam  fidem,  beyond 
what  one  could  believe  of  man. 

*  Or  paucispost  diebus.     (Cf.  foot-note  on  p.  353.) 


356 


SYNTAX. 


(25.)  Trans,  across,  beyond.  Trans  viare  Ire,  to  go  across 
the  sea  ;  trans  Rhenum  esse,  to  be  across  the  Rhine. 
_  (26.)  Ultra,  on  the  farther  side  of,  beyond  (opposite  of  citra). 
Ultra  Padum,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Po ;  ultra  puerlles 
annos,  beyond  the  years  of  boyhood ;  ultra  inodum,  beyond 
the  limit. 

Prepositions  with  Accusative  or  Ablative. 

560  (1.)  hu  into  (with  accusative),  in  (with  ablative)  (oppo- 
site of  ex). 

a.  With  accusative  (motion  implied).  Place  :  in  urbem, 
into  the  city;  in  Hlsparilam,  into  Spain;  in  caelum,  to- 
wards heaven.  Time:  in  multam  noctem,  till  late  at  night. 
Metaphorically  :  in  perpetmun,  for  ever ;  in  aliqiiem  car- 
men scribere,  to  write  a  poem  on  somebody  ;  in  I'lberds  indul- 
gentla,  indulgence  towards  one's  children ;  pletas  in  deds,  piety 
towards  the  gods  ;  impetus  in  castra,  an  attack  uj)on  the  camp ; 
in  helium  ardentes,  eager  for  war. 

h.  With  ablative  (motion  not  implied).  Place:  in  urhe, 
in  the  city ;  in  terra,  on  the  earth ;  in  cnritione,  in  the  assem- 
bly ;  in  his,  among  these.  Time  :  in  adulescentia,  in  youth  ; 
in  ed  anno,  in  that  year.  Metaphorically  :  in  me,  in  my 
case  ;  in  rnetu,  in  fear ;  in  hoc  genere,  in  this  class. 

(2.)  Sub,  under  (opposite  of  super), 

a.  With  accusative  (motion  implied).  Place:  sub  iugum 
m'lttere,  to  send  under  the  yoke;  sub  montem  accedere,  to  go 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Time:  sub  vespenim,  just  to- 
wards evening  ;  sub  lucem,  just  before  dawn  ;  sub  haec  dicta, 
just  after  this  was  said.  Metaphorically  :  sub  potestatem 
eliis  cadere,  to  fall  under  his  power. 

^.  With  ablative  (motion  not  implied).  Place:  sub  terra, 
under  the  earth ;  sub  vesti mentis,  under  one's  clothing ;  sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Time  :  sub  ipsa  profec- 
tione,  just  at  the  start;  sub  luce,  by  daylight.  Metaphor- 
ically :  sub  artnls,  under  arms  ;  sub  regno  ill'ius,  under  his 
sway  ;  sub  h'ts  C07idicidnlbus,  on  these  terms. 

(3.)  Subter,  beneath   (rare  and  mostly  poetical).     Subter 


PREPOSITIONS    WITH    ACCUSATIVE   AND    ABLATIVE.     357 

fastJgia  tectl,  below  the  point  of  the  roof ;  subter  mare,  un- 
der the  sea  ;  subter  lltore,  by  [beneath]  the  shore. 
(4.)  Sup)er,  above  (opposite  of  sub), 

a.  With  accusative.  Super  caput  hostium  pervenire,  to 
come  out  above  the  heads  of  the  enemy ;  aquila  super  carpen- 
tum  voUtans,  an  eagle  flying  over  the  carriage  ;  super  Bospo- 
rum,  beyond  the  Bosporus  ;  super  ejmlas,  during  the  feast 
(post-classical). 

b.  With  ablative  (chiefly  in  the  metaphorical  meaning 
*'  about,"  ''  concerning  ").  Super  hdc  re,  on  this  matter  ;  su- 
per ancilla,  in  regard  to  the  handmaid ;  super  Priamo  rogi- 
tans,  asking  about  Priam.  [Very  rare  in  Cicero,  and  not  found 
in  Caesar  in  this  use.] 

Prepositions  with  Ablative. 
661.  (1.)  Ab  (abs,  a),  away  from,  from  (opposite  of  ad). 
Place  :  ab  urbe  diicere,  to  march  from  the  city ;  a  te  ahire, 
to  go  away  from  you.  Time  :  ab  urbe  condita,  from  or  after,' 
the  founding  of  the  city ;  ab  hora  tertla,  from  the  third  hour. 
Metaphorically  :  ab  defensidne  desistere,  to  cease  from  the 
defense  ;  prope  ab  origine.  near  [/.  e.,  not  far  from]  the  ori- 
gin ;  ab  Hid  differre,  to  be  different  from  that ;  quartm  ab 
Arceslla,  fourth  from  [/.  e.,  after]  Arcesilas  ;  s.  patre  deductus 
ad  Scaevolam,  taken  by  my  father  to  Scaevola  ;  abs  te  laudari, 
to  be  praised  by  you. 

(2.)  Absque,  away  from,  without,  except  (ante-classical  and 
post-classical).  Absque  panels  sijllahls,  except  a  few  svlla- 
bles  (Gell.).  ^ 

^  Absque  is  very  rare  except  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  where  it  is  used  only 
m  connection  v  itli  tlin  imperfect  subjunctive  of  sum  as  an  equivalent  for  a 
conditional  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Quam  fortunatus  citerls  sum  rebus  absque  una  hac  foret,  how  lucky 
I  am  in  everything:  else,  were  it  not  for  this  one  thing  [if  it 'were  ap-^rt 
from  this  one  thing  j  (Ter.,  Uec,  001). 

(3.)  Corajn  (first  used  as  preposition  by  Cicero),  before  the 
face  of,  in  presence  of.  Coram  generd  meD,  in  my  son-in-law's 
presence  ;  coram  jjopuld,  before  the  people  (Hor.). 


358 


SYNTAX. 


(4.)  Cum,  with,  in  company  with  (opposite  of  sine).  Cum 
conmgihus  et  iJlerls,  with  their  wives  and  children  ;  Meciim, 
with  me  ;  parlter  cum  ortu  soils,  at  sunrise. 

(5.)  De,  from  (between  ah  and  ex),  down  from.  Place  :  de 
flnibics  suis  exire,  to  go  out  from  one's  boundaries ;  de  dirjitd 
anulum  detrahere,  to  take  a  ring  from  the  finger ;  de  rAieto, 
from  heaven.  Time  :  de  node,  by  night ;  de  tertiu  viglUa, 
in  the  third  watch.  Metaphorically  :  poeta  de  pojynlTj,  a 
poet  from  the  people  ;  de  sud  adventu,  about  his  arrival ;  de 
argento,  in  regard  to  the  money  ;  quid  de  fmtre,  how  about 
brother  ? 

(6.)  Ex  {e),  out  of,  from  (opposite  of  in).  Place:  ex  op. 
pido  Ire,  to  go  out  of  the  town  ;  e  portu,  from  the  harbor. 
Time  :  ex  cdnsulatu,  from,  or  after,  his  consulship  ;  ex  eo  teui^ 
pore,  from  that  time.  Metaphorically  :  ex  te  qaaerere,  to 
ask  of  you  ;  ex  hoc  quaesta,  from  this  profession  ;  statua  ex  aere 
facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze ;  ex  med  sententia,  in  accord- 
ance with  my  opinion  [wishes]  ;  e  re  pUblica,  in  the  interest  of 
the  state  ;  e  regidne,  in  a  straight  line. 

(7.)  Prae,  before,  in  front  of.  Place  :  prae  se  mittere, 
to  send  in  front  of  one's  self.  Metaphorically  (more  fre- 
quent) :  prae  ynetu.  for  fear;  prae  magnitffdine,  in  compari- 
son with  their  size ;  prae  iaciildrum  midtitudine,  on  account  of 
the  number  of  darts. 

(8.)  Pro,  before,  in  front  of.  Place  :  pro  aede  Castoris, 
in  front  of  the  temple  of  Castor  ;  pr5  castrls,  before  the  camp  ; 
pro  contione,  before  the  assembly.  Metaphorically:  pro 
patrid,  in  behalf  of  the  country  ;  pro  te,  for,  or  instead  of,  you ; 
pr5  heneficils  tuis,  in  return  for  your  kindnesses  ;  pr5  dlgni- 
tdte  sud,  in  accordance  with  his  own  dignity. 

(9.)  Si7ie,  without  (opposite  of  cum).  Sine  te,  without  you  ; 
sine  dubio,  without  doubt ;  sine  poena,  without  punishment. 

(10.)  Temis,  so  far  as  (stands  after  its  case).  Aethiopid 
tenu3,  as  far  as  Aethiopia ;  capulo  tenus,  as  far  as  the  hilt. 
(For  tenus  with  genitive,  see  431,/.) 

For  cases  with  other  parts  of  speech  used  like  prepositions,  see  390,  4, 
391,  1  and  3,  and  431,  g. 


CONNECTIVE   PARTICLES. 


359 


Note.    Observe  the  different  meanings  of  the  following  constructions : 


Also:  — 


Jftomam 
ad  liumam 
in  Bo  mam 
Roma, 
ab  Roma 
ex  Roma 

Romae 
ad  Romam 


to  Rome. 

to  (the  neighborhood  of)  Rome. 

into  Rome. 

from  Rome. 

from  (the  neighborhood  of)  Rome. 

from  (within)  Rome. 

at  Rome, 
near  Rome. 


Conjunctions  and  Other  Connective  Particles. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  connectives  deserve 
attention. 

Words  for  AND  (Copulatives). 

662.  The  three  words  for  "  and/'  et,  que,  atque  (dc), 
are  used  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  Ft  is  the  general  connective,  meaning  simply 
"  and  ;  "  as :  — 

Cicero  et  Caesar ;  qudlis  et  quanta  sit,  of  what  sort  and 
extent  it  is  ;  virtus  ipsa  corUemnitnr  et  ostentdtio  esse  dicitur, 
virtue  itself  is  scorned  and  said  to  be  [mere]  display  ;  multi 
et  *  praecldrl  virl,  many  famous  men. 

(2.)  Que  implies  a  very  close  connection,  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  second  of  the  connected  words,  or,  when  it 
connects  phrases  or  clauses,  to  the  first  word  of  the  second 
phrase  or  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Ferro  ignlque.  with  fire  and  sword ;  domt  militiaeque,  at 
home  and  in  tlie  field ;  sendtns  populusque  Bdmdnus  ;  sic 
ndtura  sdlitarium  nihil  amat  semperque  ad  aliquod  tarn- 
quam  adminiculum  .  .  .  adnltitur,  so  nature  loves  nothing 
solitary,  hut  is  always  struggling  for  some  support,  as  it  were 
(Cic,  Am.,  23,  88). 

a.  With  the  prepositions  d,  ab,  ad,  apud,  ob,  sub,  que  is 

*  A  connective  is  thus  re^larly  used  between  two  adjectives  agreeing 
with  the  same  noun  in  Latin,  where  in  English  no  connective  is  preferred. 


(L^ 


360 


SYNTAX. 


attached  to  the  object  rather  than   to  the  preposition  ;    as,  a 
meque,  and  by  nie ;  oh  eamque  rem,  and  on  tliat  account. 

(3.)  Atque  (ar,  never  used  before  vowels  or  h)  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  simple  connective  of  two  words. 
Thus  :  — 

Bella  ac  paccj  in  war  and  peace  ;  in  omni  caelo  atque  terra, 
in  all  heaven  and  on  earth ;  honesta  atque  inhonesfa,  thin^rg 
right  and  wrong  ;  ?nlnult  ao  inollU,  lessens  and  softens. 

But  atque  {ar)  is  more  conunonly  used  to  give  greater 
prominence  to  the  last  one  of  the  connected  ideas  (= ''  and 
in  fact,"  "  and  particularly").     Thus  :  — 

Bes  tanta  atque  tarn  atrox,  a  thing  so  great  and  in  fact  so 
monstrous  ;  vitiiaa  levium  hominum  atque  faUdcium,  the  vice 
of  frivolous  and  in  fact  treacherous  men  ;  ad  opes  tiiendas  ac 
tenendds,  for  the  guarding  and  even  maintaining  his  jmwer. 

a.  Atfpie  (dc)  is  less  common  than  ef  or  que,  to  connect 
clauses. 

b.  Atque  (dc)  is  used  after  words  implying  a  comparison,  in 
the  sense  of  ''  than  "  or  "  as."     Thus  :  — 

Virtus  eadem  in  homhie  atque  deo  est,  virtue  is  the  same 
in  man  as  in  God  ;  rides  omnia  fere  contra,  ac  dicta  sunt, 
evenisse,  you  see  almost  everything  has  come  out  different 
from  what  was  said ;  aliter  de  alils  ac  de  nobis  iudicdmus,  we 
judge  of  others  otherwise  than  of  ourselves.  Cf.  the  similar 
use  of  "  nor  "  in  vulgar  English  ;  as,  ''  he  's  taller  nor  I  be." 

For  et  and  que  after  neqne  {nee),  see  565,  d. 
*'  atqul,  see  569,  1. 

663.  (1.)  For  "both  .  .  .  and,"  et  .  .  .  et  h  the 
regular  classical  expression. 

a.  Que  .  .  .  que  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  poets  and  later 
writers,  though  also  used  sometimes  in  j)rose  when  the  first 
word  is  a  pronoun  ;  as,  seque  remque  publicavi  curare,  to 
care  for  himself  and  the  state.  Et  ,  ,  ,  que,  and  que  .  .  . 
et,  are  rarely  found. 


CONNECTIVE  PARTICLES. 


361 


b.  Qua  .  .  ,  qxud,  and  simul  .  .  .  ^imul  are  also  found.  So, 
too,  mods  .  .  .  modo,  turn  .  .  .  turn,  "  now  this  .  .  .  now 
that,  '  tend  to  pass  into  the  weaker  meaning  «  both  .  .  .  and." 
(2.)  Cnm  .  .  .  turn,  **  both  .  .  .  and,"  "  not  only  .  .  . 
but  also,"  and  non  modo  {^blum,  or  sometimes  tantwrC) 
.   .  .  sed  (vera?n)  etiam*   throw  more   stress  upon    the 

second  of  the  ideas  connected.     Thus  : 

Qua  quid  potest  esse  cum  fructu  laetius  turn  adspecta 
pulchrius  ?  cfiius  quidem  non  ut'ditds  irie  solum,  ut  ante 
^ixi,  sed  etiam  ciatura  et  ndtUra  ipsa  delectat,  than  which 
[the  vine]  what  can  be,  not  only  more  luxuriant  in  fruit,  but 
even  more  beautiful  to  look  at  ?  I  take  delight  not  only  in  its 
usefulness,  but  also  in  the  very  cultivation  of  it  and  study  of  its 
nature  (Cic,  Sen.,  15,  53). 

a.  So  also  when  the  first  expression  or  both  expressions  are 
negative  :  ndn  mod6  ndn,  etc.,  ,  ,  ,  sed  etiam,  or  sed  7ie  .  ,  . 
quidem.     Thus  :  — 

Omnia  despicere  non  modg  non  laitdl  verum  etiam 
viico  dandum  putd,  I  think  that  to  look  down  upon  everythinjr 
(^  e  from  a  philosophic  height)  must  be  regarded  not  only  as 
no  glory,  but  even  as  a  defect ;  erjr,  non  mod5  tibt  non  Irds- 
cor  sed  ne  reprehendo  quidem  factum  tuum,  1  not  only  am 
not  angry  with  you,  but  do  not  even  find  fault  with  what  you 
have  done.  ^ 

i.  When  the  second  member  eontains  ne  .  .  .  qr,ulem,  if  the 
predicate  of  both  members  is  the  same,  the  second  mn  is  regu- 
larly omitte.1  in  the  first  member.     Tims  :  — 

Quae  non  mod5  avuco  sed  ne  nbero  quidem  dlyna  est, 
which  [servile  flattery]  is  not  only  not  worthy  of  a  friend,  bu 
not  even  of  a  freeman  (Cic,  Am.,  24.  89). 

564.  When  more  than  two  things  are  connected,  either 
tlie  conjunction  is  omitted  altogether  (asyndeton),  or  it  is 
used  between  each  two  words.     Thus  : 

Cieero,  Caesar,  Saihtstim,  or  Cicero  et  Caesar  et  Sallus- 

*  Sometimes  also  sed  alone. 


362 


SYNTAX. 


DISJUNCTIVE   PARTICLES. 


3G3 


a.  Sometimes  que  is  attached  to  the  last  word  of  a  series 
otherwise  unconnected,  although  in  Cicero  in  sucth  cases  (except 
where  the  last  word  is  alii,  c^terl,  or  the  like)  there  is  generally, 
if  not  always,  a  closer  connection  hetween  the  last  two  memhers 
of  the  series  which  makes  them  a  sort  of  unit  in  relation  to  the 
rest;  as,  voltas,  voces,  motus  statusque  mUtantiir  (Off.,  i., 
29,  102),  where  the  motions  and  attitude  form  one  element  of  the 
series,  the  other  two  being  the  expression  of  the  face  and  the 
voice. 

b.  In  Livy  and  later  writers  the  last  two  words  are  sometimes 
connected  even  by  et  when  the  others  are  unconnected,  as  is 
done  in  English. 

c.  Asyndeton  is  especially  common  with  pairs  of  words  which 
together  form  a  sort  of  whole  ;  as,  equites  pedites  jyernilxfi, 
horse  and  foot  all  mixed  up  together ;  ventis  rem'is,  with  wind 
and  oar;  and  in  fixed  expressions  like  Z.  P'lsone  A.  Gablnio 
cotisulibus  ;  lappiter  optimus  mUxhnus. 

Words  for  OR  (Disjunctives). 

665.  (1.^  Of  the  words  for  "or,"  aut  and  it^  are  used 
in  assertions  and  negations,  an  in  questions,  sive  in  condi- 
tional statements. 

(2.)  Aut  indicates  that  in  the  nature  of  the  case  only 
one  of  the  alternatives  is  possible;  vel  (from  volo^  indi- 
cates that  the  choice  of  the  alternative  rests  with  the  per- 
son concerned.     Thus  :  — 

Haec  aut  vera  sunt  aut  falsa,  this  is  either  true  or  false ; 
hic  vincendum  aut  moriendum  est,  under  these  circumstances 
we  must  conquer  or  die. 

Eiusmodi  conlunctionem  tectonim  oppidum  vel  urbem  ap- 
pellaverunt,  such  a  combination  of  buildings  they  called  a  town 
or  [if  you  please]  a  city  (Cic,  Re  Pub,,  i.,  26,  41)  ;  transfer 
idem  ad  modestiam  vel  tempera fUianiy  apply  the  same  thing 
to  self-control  or  self-i estraint  (Cic,  Fm,,  ii.,  19,  60). 

Sed  uirum  tu  amic'is  hodie  an  inimicts  tuls  datum's  ce- 
nam?  but  are  you  going  to  give  a  dinner  to  your  friends  or  to 
your  enemies  on  this  occasion  ?  (Plant.,  Ps.,  iii.,  2,  88). 


Cumque  homiiu  sive  nutura  sive  quis  dens  nihil  mente 
praestabilius  dedisset,  and  that  when  either  nature  *  or  some 
god  had  given  man  nothing  more  excellent  than  his  mind  (Cic, 
Sen,,  12,  40). 

a.  Aut  or  vel  can  of  course  be  used  in  a  question  when  the 
alternative  does  not  apply  to  the  whole  question,  but  only  to  a 
particular  pair  of  words  or  phiases  in  it ;  as :  — 

Nonne  haec  necessdrio  aut  iwra  aut  falsa  sunt  ?  are  not 
these  things  necessarily  either  true  or  false  ? 

b.  Ve  is  milder  than  vel,  and  is  attached  like  que  to  the 
second  word  or  phrase  ;  as  :  — 

Sine  ullls  praemiJs  fructibusve,  without  any  rewards  or 
emoluments;  pliis  minusve,  more  or  less  ;  bis  terve,  two  or 
three  times. 

c.  The  use  of  vel,  where  there  is  no  alternative,  in  the  sense 
of  "  if  you  will,"  '*  even,"  is  of  course  adverbial,  not  conjuncti- 
val.    Thus :  — 

Nrdlaene  igitur  res  sunt  seniles,  quae  vel  inflrmis  corpori- 
bu^  animd  tamen  administrentur,  are  there  then  no  occupations 
befitting  old  men,  which,  even  though  their  bodies  be  feeble, 
they  can  yet  carry  on  with  their  minds  ?  (Cic,  Sen.,  6,  15). 

Vel  is  especially  common  in  this  use  with  superlatives. 

d.  After  neque  {nee)  in  Latin  an  affirmative  clause  or  phrase 
is  added  with  et  or  que,  even  when  in  English  *•  not  .  .  .  but " 
is  preferred.     Thus  :  — 

Sed  nee  ilia  exst'incta  sunt  aliuiturque  potius  et  auyentur, 
but  that  [remembrance]  is  not  destroyed,  but  rather  nourished 
and  increased  (Cic,  Am.,  27,  104). 

For  neve  =  "  and  not  "  in  purpose  clauses,  see  482,  1. 

Note.  As  an  eflfective  example  of  the  use  of  different  connectives  may 
be  piven  the  following  sentence  from  Cicero  (Off.,  i.,  25,  Sc) :  — 

Hinr  apud  Atheniens'is  mdgnae  discordiae,  in  nostra  re  publico.  n5n  so- 
lum seditiunes,  sed  etiam  pestifera  hella  civ'dia :  quae  gravis  et  fords 
civis  et  in  re  pUblicd  d'lgnus  principdtu  fugiet  atque  oderit  tradetque  se 
totum  rei  publicae  neque  opes  aut  potentiam  cdnseddbitur  iotamque  earn 
sic  tuebitur  ut  omnibus  cotisulat. 

*  /.  e.,  nature,  if  it  was  she. 


i 


364 


SYNTAX. 


ADVERSATIVES.  —  ATQUI  AND    TAMEN, 


365 


Words  for  BUT  (Adversatlves). 

666.  (1).  Sed  and  (more  emphatic)  veram  are  the 
regular  adversative  conjunctions  correspondinrr  to  the 
English  -  but."     Thus:  — 

Vera  dlco,  sed  7iequiquam,  I  speak  the  truth,  hut  to  no  pur- 
pose. 

Non  quid  nobis  utile,  verum  quid  neressarium  sit,  quaeri- 
mus,  we  are  trying  to  find  out,  not  what  is  expedient  for  our- 
selves,  but  what  is  necessary. 

(2.)  At*  marks  a  contrast  more  forcibly  than  sed  or 
verum,  and  especially  introduces  an  objection  to  a  line  of 
argument,  particularly  a  supposed  objection  of  an  oppo- 
nent.    Thus :  — 

Mojjnae  cUvitiae  dmbuntur,  at  ififjeni  egregiafacinora  im- 
mortal ia  sunt,  even  great  riches  slip  away,  but  the  deeds  of  a 
noble  disposition  are  immortal;  at  memoria  ininuitur,  but 
[you  will  say]  the  memory  weakens. 

667.  Verd,  ''  in  faet  "  (standing  regularly  second  in 
its  clause ;  see  590,  a),  contrasts  something  sharply  with 
what  has  gone  before,  as  certainly  true.     Thus  :  — 

Haec  sunt  levidra,  ilia  vero  gravia  atq^ie  magna,  these 
things  are  rather  trifling,  but  those  are  really  weighty  and  great. 

a.  So  after  a  supposed  case  whicli  is  not  the  real  one,  nunc 
vero  or  nunc  alone  =  -  as  it  is/'  introduces  the  real  case. 
Thus :  — 

Ille  autem,  sJ  mehercfuU  Mc,  quod  agit,  numquam  anted  co- 
gifdsset,  tamen  latrocinantem  se  interfi^l  mdUet  quam  exsulem 
vwere  ;  nunc  vero,  etc..  now  he,  if,  by  the  gods,  he  had  never 
before  meditated  the  move  he  is  now  making,  would  yet  prefer 
to  be  killed  in  border  warfare  than  to  live  in  exile  ;  but  as  it  is, 
etc.  (Cic,  Cat.,  ii.,  7,  16). 

668.  Autem  is  the  mildest  word  for  "  but,''  and  fre- 
quently marks  a  transition  so  slight  that  in  Enj^Hsh  ''  how- 
ever,'*  "  now,"  "  and,"  would  be  employed.     Thus  :  — 

*  A  form  a  St  occurs  in  poetry. 


Croesus  hostium  vi?n  sese  perversurum  putdvit,  pervertit 
autem  suam,  Croesus  thought  he  was  going  to  overthrow  the 
power  of  his  foes,  but  he  overthrew  his  own ;  nihil  praesidbilius 
mihf  videtur  quam  posse  dicendo  homilies  impellere  qud  veils, 
unde  autem  i'ells  deducere,  nothing  seems  to  me  finer  than  to 
be  able  by  oi-atory  to  persuade  men  to  what  you  will  and  again 
to  draw  them  away  from  what  you  will ;  M.  Octduius  Salonds 
oppfigyidre  Instituit ;  est  autem  oppidum  et  lorl  ndturd  et 
colle  munttum,  Marcus  Octavius  began  to  besiege  Salonae  ;  it  is, 
by  the  way,  a  town  fortified  by  its  situation  upon  a  hill. 

a.  Parentheses  are  often,  as  in  the  last  example,  introduced 
by  autem, 

h.  Ceterum  is  also  used  for  "but"  (lit,  as  to  the  rest),  es- 
pecially by  Livy.     Thus  :  — 

Nondum  bellum  erat,  ceterum  iam  belli  causd  certdmina 
.  .  .  serebantur,  there  was  not  yet  war,  but  quarrels  were 
already  being  stirred  up  with  a  view  to  war  (Liv.,  xxi.,  6,  l). 

Atqin  and  Tamen. 
669.   (1.)   Atqui,  and    yet,    must  not    be  confounded 
with  atque.     It  stands  only  at  the  beginning  of  an  inde- 
pendent sentence,  and  asserts  emphatically  the  truth  of 
that  sentence  in  spite  of  what  went  before  it. 

"  0  rem^'  inquis  "  in^xplicdlilem /  "  atqui  explicanda  est, 
"  oh  inexplicable  situation,"  you  say ;  and  yet  it  must  be  ex- 
plained. 

(2.)  Tamen  is  the  regular  word  for  "yet,"  "however." 
It  does  not  stand  first  unless  the  concessive  character  of 
the  thing  said  is  to  be  emphasized  rather  than  the  thing 
itself.     Thus :  — 

Pausanids  a/^cUsdtus  capitis  absolvitur.  mrdtdtur  tamen  ^e- 
c;7/?m,  Pausanias  is  accused  of  a  capital  crime  and,  though  not 
condemned  to  death,  is  yet  punished  by  a  fine ;  qu^ie  tametsi 
Caesar  intellegehat.  tamen  quam  niitissinie  potest  legdtos  ap- 
pellat.  although  Caesar  understood  what  this  meant,  he  never- 
theless addressed  the  ambassadors  as  affably  as  possible. 


366 


SYNTAX. 


Words  for  THEREFORE  (lUatlves). 

570.  Itaque  marks  a  thing  as  the  actual  consequence 
of  something  which  precedes ;  iyitur  and  (less  common) 
ercjo  introduce  the  LOGICAL  consequence  of  an  argument- 
pToimh{=  "accordingly")  is  used  only  with  commands 
and  exhortations  (imperative  and  subjunctive).  Thus :  -— 
Arlsndes  aequZdis  fere  fidt  ThemistocU  ;  itaque  cum  ed  d? 
prindpatn  coniendit,  Aristides  was  of  about  the  same  a<re  as 
Themistocles  :  therefore  he  was  his  rival  m  aiming  at  the"  hief 
magistracy. 

BesUolae  quaedam  unum  dlemvwunt  ;  ex  his  igitur  horn 
octdca  quae  mortua  est,  prdoecta  aetate  mortua  est,  certain  aiii- 
malculae  live  but  one  day  ;  one  of  these  therefore  which  dies  at 
the  eighth  hour,  dies  in  advanced  age. 

Proinde  fac  animum  iantum  habeas  quantd  opus  sit,  see 
therefore  that  you  have  as  much  courage  as  is  needed. 

a  Tgitur  does  not  often  stand  first,  except  in  Sallust,  LivT, 
and  the  later  writers. 

Words  for  FOR. 

671.  These  are  nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  Xamque 
and  eteniyn  imply  a  little  closer  connection  than  the 
others,  and  are  much  less  common.  Enim  is  weaker  than 
nam,  and  in  classical  Latin  never  begins  its  clause. 
Thus  :  — 

Nam  mrixiynum  omamentum  amicitiae  iollit,  qui  ex  ea  tol- 
lit  verecundiam,  for  he  takes  away  the  greatest  ornament  of 
friendship  who  takes  respect  from  it  (Cic,  Am,,  22,  82). 

Sic  se  res  habet ;  ut  enim  ndn  omne  vinum  sic  non  omnis 
natura  vetustate  coacescit,  so  the  matter  stands ;  for,  as  in  the 
case  of  wine,  not  every  disposition  grows  sour  with  a-e  (Cic, 
Sen.,  18,  65).  ^ 

a.  Neque  enim  is  much  commoner  than  nam  non,  and  in  gen- 
eral tlie  Romans  had  a  fancy  for  bringing  in  the  negative  a^ 
early  as  possible.  Hence,  usually,  are  found  neque,  nee  umquam, 
etc.,  rather  than  et  non,  et  numquam,  etc. 


CONNECTIVE   PARTICLES. 


367 


Qaidem,  Sane,  Vero,  Oerte,  Prolecto,  Saltern,  etc. 

Note.  These  words  are  rather  adverbs  emphasizing  the  word  before 
them  than  conjunctions,  but  their  use  in  connecting  sentences  by  tlirowing 
emphasis  upon  the  first  word  in  their  clause  makes  it  easier  to  understand 
them  in  connection  with  the  preceding. 

672.  Quidem  is  the  weakest  of  the  above  words,  and  is 
often  best  rendered  in  English  by  putting  extra  stress  of 
voice  uj^on  the  word  before  it ;  sane  and  vero  give  per- 
haps the  most  emphasis.     Thus  :  — 

Vim  hoc  quidem  est  adferre  /  quid  enim  refert  qua  me 
rat  tone  cd(/dtis  ?  cogitis  certe,  this  is  to  apply  force  ;  for 
what  matters  it  how  you  force  me  ?  force  me  you  certainly  do 
(Cic,  Am,,  8,  26). 

Ego  ver5  ndn  gravarer,  si  mihi  ipse  cJJnflderem,  I  certainly 
sliould  make  no  objection  if  I  had  confidence  in  myself  (Cic, 
Am.,  5,  17). 

Prof ecto  negdre  ndn  potes,  surely  you  cannot  deny  it  (Cic, 
Verr,,  ii.,  18,  44). 

Eripe  mi/n  hunc  dolorem  ant  minue  saltern,  take  this  grief 
from  me  or  at  least  alleviate  it  (Cic,  Att.,  ix.,  6,  5). 

a.  Equidem  is  used,  as  a  rule,  rather  than  quidem,  if  the  parti- 
cle is  to  be  connected  with  an  egS  (expressed  or  implied)  ;  as  :  — 

Id  equidem  ego  ceHo  scio,  that  I  know  for  sure  (Plant, 
Bare,  iii.,  3,  3)  ;  *'  nihiV  inquit  "  equidem  n5vi,"  *'  I  know 
nothing  about  it,"  he  says  (Cic,  Dlv.,  i.,  6,  11). 

But:  Ex  vie  quidem  niiul  audlre  potuisses,  you  could 
have  heard  nothing  from  me  (Cic,  N.  D,,  i.,  21,  57). 

Eqtiidem  is,  however,  occasionally  used  with  the  second  and 
third  persons. 

b.  Ne  .  .  .  quidem,  "  not  .  .  .  even,'*  *'  not  .  .  .  either,"  takes 
the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  its  parts.  (Cf.  563, 
2,  a.) 

c.  Si  quidem  corrects  a  previous  statement,  and  is  equivalent 
to  "  that  is,  if  ;  "  as  :  — 

A  pud  Graecos  antlquissimrim  est  genus  poetdrum,  si  qui- 
dem Hoinerusfuit  ante  Roniam  coiulitam,  among  the  Greeks 


368 


SYNTAX. 


poets  are  a  very  ancient  class  —  that  is,  if  Homer  lived  before 
the  founding  of  Rome. 

Etiam  and  Qnoqae. 

673.  Etiam,  even,  also,  generally  stands  before  the 
word  or  phrase  which  it  emphasizes  ;  quoque*  also,  even, 
always  after  the  word  it  emphasizes,  or  second  in  the 
clause  when  it  applies  to  it  as  a  whole.     Thus  : 

lustitiain  qui  tollunt,  etiam  adversus  deos  impil  indl- 
caiidl  sunt,  those  who  do  away  with  justice  are  to  be  judged 
disloyal  even  towards  the  gods. 

^Qua  tempestateKaHJuifjin lenses  pleraeque  Africae  imperi- 
tabant,  Cyrenenses  quoque  magnl  fuere,  at  the  time  when 
the  Carthaginians  ruled  most  of  Africa,  the  Cyrenaeans  also 
were  great  (Sail.,  Jug.,  79,  2). 

a,  Et  is  rarely  used  for  et'unn  in  classical  prose,  except  with 
certain  particles,  7iam,  quin,  sed,  sic,  simul,  verum,  etc.,  and 
with  the  demonstrative  j)ronouns  or  ipse  ;  as  : 

Et  illud  videndum  quantd  magis  homines  viala  fugiant, 
quam  sequantur  bona,  we  must  notice  tliis  also,  how  much 
more  men  shun  the  wrong  than  they  pursue  the  right  (Cic, 
Part,  dr.,  26,  90). 

In  Aequds  transiit  et  ipsos  bellum  moUentes,  he  marched 
over  into  tlie  land  of  the  Aequi  [who  were]  themselves  planning 
war  (Liv.,  vi.,  2,  14). 

Interrogative  Particles. 
Single  Questions. 
674.  Ne  is  always  used  to  ask  questions  simply  for  in- 
formation, and  does  not  show  whether  an  affirmative  or  a 
negative  answer  is  expected.    It  is  always  attached  encliti- 
cally  to  an  emphatic  word  in  its  clause,  usually  to  the  first 

word  (i,  e.,  the  most  emphatic  one).     Thus : 

Visne  fortunam  experlrl?    do  you  want  to  try  fortune? 
omnisne  pecunia  solUta  est  ?  is  all  the  money  paid  ? 

♦  Not  to  be  confused  with  quoque  (ablative  of  quisque,  each). 


INTERROGATIVE   PARTICLES. 


369 


a.  Ne  can  be  attached  to  any  kind  of  word  except  preposi- 
tions of  one  syllable.  Cf.  in  nostr&ne  j^otest ate,  in  our  power? 
(Cic,  Ein.,  ii,  32,  104). 

b.  Sometimes  the  context  or  the  situation  shows  whether  an 
affirmative  or  a  negative  answer  is  expected,  especially  with 
words  of  thinking  or  perceiving.     Thus  :  — 

Videsne  almnddre  me  dtld,  do  you  not  see  that  I  have 
plenty  of  leisure  ?  (Cic,  Tasc,  ii.,  11,  26)  ;  ubt  tim  aut  qualis 
potesne  d'lcere,  can  you  say  where  or  what  your  own  [mind 
is]  ?  (Cic,  Tasc,  i.,  27,  67). 

c.  Ne  is  occasionally  appended  to  another  interrogative  word  ; 
as,  uterne,  utru/nne,  quantane,  numne. 

d.  In  the  dramatic  and  other  poets  vln  ?  viden  ?  satin  ?  etc, 
are  often  found  for  insne  ?  videsne  ?  satisne  ?  etc. 

575.  Nonne  is  used  to  introduce  a  question  to  which 
an  affiruiative  answer  is  expected.     Thus  :  — 

Canis  nonne  lupo  simills  est,  is  not  a  dog  like  a  wolf? 

a.  So  also  nentone,  nihilne,  numqnamne,  nusqv/imne. 

b.  Nonne  is  not  used  by  Plautus  and  is  very  rare  in  Terence, 
the  simple  7ie  being  used  instead.     Cf.  674,  b. 

576.  Num  is  used  to  introduce  a  question  to  which  a 
negative  answer  is  expected.     Thus  :  — 

"Num  putds  me  tarn  dementem  fuisse  ?  do  you  imagine  that 
I  was  so  mad  ? 

577.  Sometimes  questions  expressing  wonder  or  disap- 
proval are  put  without  any  particle  ;  as  :  — 

Rogas  ?  you  ask  ?  can  you  ask  ?  tu  id  nesciebds  ?  you  did  n't 
know  it  ?  Archiam  egS  non  dtligam  ?  shall  I  not  esteem  Archias  ? 

578.  An  is  used  to  introduce  a  single  direct  ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  implies  a  supposed  answer  to  a  previous 
question,  or  (2)  when  it  strengthens  a  previous  statement 
by  hinting  that  the  thing  suggested  in  the  question  is  in- 
conceivable.    Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Quid  ad  me  venitis?  an  speculandi  causa,  why  come 
ye  to  me  ?  for  the  purpose  of  spying  ? 


370 


SYNTAX. 


(2.)  Oratorem  Irasci  minimt  deret ;  an  tihX  Ira  set  turn 
videtiir  cum  qnld  in  causls  vehement  his  die  it,  it  is  not  at  all 
becoming  for  an  orator  to  give  way  to  wrath ;  or  does  he  per- 
haps seem  to  you  to  give  way  to  wratli  when  he  says  something 
violently  in  jJeading  a  case  ? 

679.  In  indirect  questions  ne  and  Tiinn  are  used  without 
appreciable  difference ;  iionne  implies  the  answer  "  yes.'' 
Thus  :  — 

Quaeritur,  idemne  sit  pej^incicia  et  perseverantia,  the  ques- 
tion is,  whether  persistence  and  perseverance  are  the  same. 

Rdmani  specidahantur,  num  sollicitdtl  animl  socidnnn  ah 
rege  Persed  essent,  the  Romans  were  trying  to  find  out  whether 
the  feelings  of  their  allies  had  been  alienated  by  king  Perseus. 

Qtiaesiems  ex  vie.  nonne  put  a  rem  invenlrl  venim  potuisse, 
you  [had]  asked  me  whether  I  did  not  think  the  truth  might 
have  been  found  out. 

a.  The  phrases  ha^id  sclo  an,  nescio  an,  dvbito  an,  are  apt  to 
imply  an  affirmative  answer,  and  are  thus  often  equivalent  to 
the  English  ''  I  am  inclined  to  think.'*     Thus  :  — 

Aristotelem  baud  scio  an  recte  dlxerim  principem  philo- 
sophornrn,  I  am  inclined  t  >  think  I  could  justly  call  Aristotle  the 
chief  of  philosophers. 

b.  Forsitan  (i.  e.^forssit  an)  always  takes  the  subjunctive  in 
good  prose ;  as,  forsitan  quaeratis,  qui  iste  terror  sit,  per- 
haps you  ask,  what  that  alarm  is  (Cic,  Hose.  Am,,  2,  5).  Fur- 
tasse  takes  the  indicative. 

Disjunctive   Questions. 

680.  Disjunctive  or  double  questions  (whether 
direct  or  indirect)  are  introduced  by  vtritm  .  .  .  an^  or 
ne  (jivni)  .  .  .  an,  or  by  an  alone  with  the  second  member, 
the  first  having  no  particle.     Thus  :  — 

Utrum  7iescls  quam  alte  adscenderis  an  pro  nihilo  id putas, 
do  you  not  know  how  high  you  have  climbed,  or  do  you  count  it 
as  nothing  ? 


DISJUNCTIVE  QUESTIONS. 


371 


Romamne  veniavi,  an  hic  maneam,  an  Arpinum  fugiam? 
shall  1  go  to  Rome,  or  stay  here,  or  fly  to  Arpinum  ?  perqulritur, 
virtus  sivamne  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructum  all- 
quern  expetdtur,  the  question  [for  our  exhaustive  discussion, 
per']  is,  whether  virtue  is  desired  for  its  own  worth  or  for  some 
reward. 

Postrema  syllaha  hrevis  an  longa  sit,  in  versu  nihil  refert, 
it  makes  no  difference  in  verse  whether  the  last  syllable  is  short 
or  long. 

a.  In  short,  sharp  indirect  questions  of  two  members,  ne  is 
sometimes  used  with  the  second  member,  the  iii-st  having  no 
particle.     Thus  :  — 

Datames  experiri  voluit  verum  falsumne  sihi  esset  reldtum, 
Datames  wished  to  see  whether  a  true  or  a  false  report  had 
been  brought  to  him. 

h.  For  an  occasionally  anne  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

Quneremlum  est.  vtrum  una  species  sit  anne  plures,  we 
much  ask  whether  there  is  one  species  or  several. 

c.  Real  disjunctive  questions  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  single  questions,  wblcli  involve  alternatives  in  points  of 
detail  merely.  In  these  last,  not  an  but  aut  or  vel  is  used. 
Thus,  in  quid  ergo  ?  solem  dlram  aut  lujiam  aut  caelum  deum, 
the  question  is,  whether  such  things  as  the  sun  and  moon  and 
sky  are  to  be  called  gods  ;  but  in  solem  dlcam  an  lunam  an 
cad^im  deum.  the  question  is,  to  which  one  of  the  three  the 
name  of  god  is  to  be  given.     (Cf.  665,  2,  a.) 

681.  If  the  second  member  of  a  disjunctive  question  is 
negative,  it  is  introduced  by  annbn  or  by  necnc.  Anndn 
is  more  common  for  direct  questions,  necne  for  indirect. 
Thus  :  — 

Isjie  est,  quern  quaero,  annon,  is  that  the  man  I  am  look- 
ing for  or  not  ? 

7)1  utrum  sint  necne  sint,  quaeritur,  the  question  is  whether 
there  are  or  are  not  gods. 


372 


SYNTAX. 


TES  and  NO. 

682.  The  answer  to  a  question  in  Latin  is  regularly 
given  by  repeating  its  emphatic  word  for  affirmation,  and 
by  repeating  that  word  with  non  for  denial.     Thus  :  — 

Mene  vis  ?  te.     Do  you  want  me?     Yes. 

£st?ie  f rater  intus?  non  eat.     Is  brother  at  home  ?     No. 

a.  Sometimes  also  an  affirmative  answer  is  given  simply  by 
ita,  ita  vera,  ita  est,  etlam,  sane,  quidern,  certe,  or  maxime  ; 
a  negative  answer  by  non,  non  ita.  non  vero,  or  minime. 

b.  Immo  and  imnfw  vero  give  a  strong  affirmative  answer  to 
a  question  in  which  some  doubt  is  latent,  or  contradict  strongly 
a  negative  question.     Thus  :  — 

Non  igitur  praestat  patria  ovinihus  officus  ?  immo  vero, 
is  not  then  ])atriotism  more  important  than  all  other  relations 
of  duty  ?     Yea,  verily. 

Num  Sulla  Romae  fuit  ?  iinm5  longe  dfuif,  was  Sulla  at 
Rome  ?     On  the  contrary,  he  was  fur  away. 


Interjections. 

683.  The  INTERJECTIONS  are  rather  exclamatory  sounds 
than  words  in  the  proper  sense,  and  have  no  syntax.  The 
chief  Latin  interjections  are  as  follows  :  — 

a  !  {ah  1)  ah !  eu!  well  done  ! 

aha  !  ah  !  aha  !  euge  !  bravo !  good  ! 

apage  !  be  gone  !  euax  !  hail !  (used  by  Plautus 

atat !  {atatte!  atatatae  !  etc.),         only). 

oh !  alas  !  lo !  euhoe  I  hail ! 

au  !  oh  !  ha  I  {hahae  !    ha  !  ha  !  ha  !) 

ecce  !  lo  !  behold !  hold  !  ho  ! 

ehem  I  ha  !  what!  hex  !  (ei  !)  woe  !  ah  me  ! 

eheti  !  alas  !  hem  !    (em  I)     oho  !    indeed ! 

eho  !    {ehodum  !)  ho !    holloa  !         alas  ! 

eia  1  (heia  !)  ah  !  indeed  !  heu  !  oh !  oh !  alas  ! 

en  1  lo  !  behold  !  heus  !  ho  there  I  say ! 


INTERJECTIONS.  —  ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS.     373 


phu!  ifu!)  fob!  fughl 
phy  !  pish !  tush  ! 
pro !  {proh  !)  oh! 
st !  hush !  whist ! 
tatae  I  strange  !  so  ! 
vae  !  woe  I  alas  ! 
vah!  (vaha!)  ah!  alas! 


hui  /  hah!  ho!  oh  ! 
id  !  ho  !  hurrah !  hail ! 
malum  !  the  deuce  ! 
o!  {oh!)  O!  oh!  ah! 
5he  !  ho!  holloa! 
oho !  oho  !  aha  ! 
oi !  oh  me  !  alas  ! 
papae  !  strange  ! 

a.  Of  these  o,  ecce,  ehem,  en,  papae,  tatae,  vah,  express  as- 
tonishment ;  euhoe,  euax,  id,  express  joy  or  ecstasy  ;  eheu, 
hei,  heu,  oi,  vae,  express  sorrow  ;  eho,  ehodum,  heus,  She,  are 
used  to  CALL  attention;  eia,  euge,  hela,  express  praise;  pro, 
proh,  are  used  in  asseveration. 

b.  To  the  interjections  may  be  added  the  mild  oaths :  Eccere, 
by  Ceres !  Ecastor,  by  Castor !  gracious  !  Edepol,  or  Pol,  by 
Pollux  !  gad  !  mehercule,  (hercle,  etc.),  by  Hercules  !  thunder! 
me  dlus  fldlus,  by  Jove !  and  the  expressions  Dl  meliora 
{duint),  God  forbid !  (lit.,  give  better  things)  ;  Dl  vostram 
fidem,  Heavens !  (lit.,  O  gods,  [I  appeal  to]  your  honor)  ;  pro 
deorum  atque  hominum  fidem,  heavens  and  earth!  pro  dl 
immortales,  by  the  innnovtal  gods  !  peril,  oh  dear !   (lit.,  I  am 

ruined),  etc. 

c.  Here  mav  also  be  mentioned  the  affirmative  particle  ne, 
verily  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  negative  nc).  It  is  used 
only  with  personal  pronouns  and  demonstrative  pronouns  or 
adverbs.     Thus :  — 

Ne  egS  homo  InfeUx  ful,  verily  I  was  an  unlucky  being 
(Plant,  Am.,  i.,  1,  172). 

Arrangement  of  Words  (^Ordo  verhorum). 

Note.  One  of  the  most  important  differences  between  Latin 
sentences  and  English  sentences  is  the  way  in  which  the  words 
are  arranged.  In  En^dlsh  ordinarily  the  subject  comes  first 
(an  adjective  which  modifies  it  standing,  however,  before  it), 
the  verb  next,  then  the  object,  and  so  on.  The  lack  of  case- 
endings  makes  such  an  arrangement  necessary  in  order  to  tell 


374 


SYNTAX. 


how  the  wor<Is    are  related  to  each    other.     I„  Latin,  on  the 
other  hand   the  gender,  number,  case.  mood,  tense,  etc!,  of  the 
word       ,e  ,            by  their  endinos  sim,.,.  and  their  order  i 
used  tor  another  purpose,  namely  : 

584.  I"  Latin  sentences  the  words  are  arranged  chiefly 
to  show  whKh  are  the  more  en.phatic  ones,  i.  e.  (roughly 
speuk,„g),  wh,eh  would  receive  greater  stress  of  voke  in 

685  This  arrangement  is  based  upon  the  very  simple 
pnnc.ple  that  the  first  word  in  any  combination  is  more 
emphafe  than  the  second,  the  seco^id  more  en.phatic  than 
the  third,  and  so  on.     Tiius  : 

Bonus  ,•,>  means  "  a  good  „.an,"  vir  bonus  n.eans  "  a  good 
MAN  ;  latrant  canes  means  •■  dogs  baek,"  canes  latrant 
means  ••  dogs  bark." 

In  the  same  way,GaUos  Caesar  mnt  means  "  Caesar  con- 
qnered   t„h  Gau.s  -  and  verberat  ernd.Hter  ser.os  metns 
he  IS  beati.vg  the  slaves  cruelli,r 

Note  1  AVhen  the  expression  becomes  longer  and  more 
complex  the  shades  of  relative  emphasis  are  too  numerous  and 
too  hue  to  be  at  all  adequately  expresse.l  by  stress  of  voice 
bu  a  httle  practice  in  reading  Latin  so  a,  to  understand  it 
vntlunU  translatrng  enables  one  to  feel  the  force  and  delicacy 
of  the  emphases  indicated  by  the  word-arransjement.  The  punil 
should  accustom  himself  thus  to  feel  the  differences  in  arrange- 
ments like  the  followino- :  _  ^ 

(1.)  Omnes  her!  Romam  v?nimus. 

Hen  Romam  omnes  venimus. 

Romam  omnes  heri  venimus. 

Venimus  hen  omnt's  Romam. 
(2.)  Hi  puerl  facile  LatTne  scribunt. 

Puerl  hi  LatTne  facile  scri])unt. 

Scnbunt  facile  hi  puerl  Latlne. 

Latlne  facile  scribunt  hi  pueri. 

Facile  hi  puerl  scribunt  Latlne. 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS. 


875 


(3.)  Fortis  miles  numquam  tergum  vertet. 
Numquam  miles  fortis  tergum  vertet. 
Tergum  fortis  miles  numquam  vertet. 
Vertet  numquam  fortis  miles  tergum. 

Note  2.  In  all  except  the  very  simplest  sentences,  some  of  the  words 
are  used  as  single  units  in  the  sentence,  others  are  grouped  in  phrases,  and 
these  last  have  more  complicated  relations  of  emphasis ;  for  instance,  a 
relation  to  the  other  words  of  their  own  phrase  and  a  relation  to  the  sen- 
tence  as  a  whole.  Now  it  is  chiefly  the  relation  of  emphasis  which  a  word 
has  to  its  own  phrase  that  we  mark  by  sti-ess  of  voice  in  English.  There- 
fore for  the  English-speaking  student  of  Latin  it  is  especially  necessary 
to  observe  how  the  words  are  grouped  in  plirases ;  also  to  notice  that  the 
emphasis  of  a  phra.se  may  be  increased  by  separating  its  words  from  each 
other,  because  theu  the  attention  has  to  be  held  over  from  the  first  word  of 
the  phrase  until  its  last  word  arrives  to  complete  it.  Compare  the  ar- 
rangements  in  groups  (2)  and  (3)  above. 

The  following  practical  rules  on  points  of  detail  may  be  given  :  — 

686.  In  combinations  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective  the 
noun  comes  first,  unless  the  adjective  is  distinctly  em- 
phatic* ^  7"       -77 

687.  Adjective  pronouns  (rneus,  alius,  hlc,  lue, 
etc.)  are  more  often  found  before  their  nouns,  because 
when  used  at  all  they  are  oftener  emphatic  than  not. 

*  Tlie  following  considerations  will  make  the  reason  for  this  rule  clear : 
In  such  an  expression  as  '*  dogs  bark"  there  are  two  contrasts  latent,  a 
contrast  between  dogs  and  other  animals  and  a  contrast  between  barkmg 
and  other  actions.  If  we  emphasize  ''dogs,"  we  bring  the  one  contrast 
more  sharplv  before  the  hearer's  attention;  if  we  emphasize  "  bark,"  we 
do  the  same  by  the  other  contrast.  In  expressions,  however,  consistmg  of 
a  noun  and  an  adjective,  there  are  further  possibilities.  If  we  say  '' a 
brick  house,"  we  do,  as  before,  contrast  sharply  a  brick  house  with  some 
other  kind  of  house  ;  but  if  we  say  "  a  brick  Aous6,"  while  we  may  mean 
thus  sharply  to  contrast  a  house  of  brick  with  other  buildings  of  brick,  we 
mav  also  mean  simplv  to  mark  the  complex  idea  "  brick  house  "  as  a  single 
thing  which  we  make  the  subject  of  our  thought.  There  is  a  subtle  con- 
nection between  our  word  accent  and  stress  of  voice  which  makes  us  utter 
the  word  "house"  in  this  last  case  somewhat  more  forcibly  than  the  woi-d 
"brick,"  and  the  Roman  did  the  analogous  thing  in  putting  the  noun  be- 
fore the  adjective  in  such  cases.  When  there  is  a  doubt  about  the  proper 
position  in  any  given  case,  it  will  be  found  that  if  the  adjective  is  put  first, 
not  belonging  there,  the  effect  is  one  of  over-emphasL,  (turgid  rhetoric). 


376 


SYNTAX. 


588.  Adverbs  are  apt  to  be  more  emphatic  than  the 
verbs,  participles,  or  adjectives  which  they  modify,  and 
therefore  rather  more  commonly  stand  before  them. 

689.  Prepositions  regularly  stand  just  before  their 
nouns,  or  with  an  adjective  or  genitive  intervening.  (But 
see  431,  (/  and  e.) 

590.  Conjunctions  and  other  connectives  stand  be- 
tween the  words  or  clauses  which  they  connect. 

a.  The  following  words  stand  after  the  word  which  they  em- 
phasize,  or  occupy  the  second  place  in  a  clause  when  they  ai)ply 

to  It  as  a  whole  (hence  they  are  called  post-positive)  : 

autem,  but,  besides,  and.  quidem,  in  fact. 

emm,  for.  quoque,  also,  even. 

igitur.  therefore,  then.  vera,  in  truth,  but. 

interim,  mean wh ile. 

h.  Que,  and  (and  ve,  or  *),  are  attached  encHtically  to  the 
second  of  two  words  which  they  connect,  and,  when  they  con- 
nect phrases  or  clauses,  to  the  first  word  of  the  second  phrase  or 
clause.     Thus  :  — 

Flfis  minusve,  more  or  less ;  sendtiis  populusque  Bd- 
mdnus,  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome  ;  corpryra  curare  eos  iussit 
Bequeparatos  ad  omnia  habere,  he  bade  them  take  rest  and  re- 
freshnient  and  be  ready  for  any  development  of  affairs. 

591.  Kelative  and  interrogative  pronouns,  besides 
their  pronominal  functions,  also  serve  as  connectives,  and 
therefore  stand  first  in  their  clauses  (sometimes  with  a 
preposition  before  them). 

592.  The  vocative  case  generally,  and  the  verb  in- 
qiiam  always,  stand  after  one  or  more  words. 

593.  A  word  may  often  be  made  particularly  emphatic 
by  being  put  even  before  the  particle  or  pronoun  which  in- 
troduces a  sentence.     Thus : 

Haec  cum  Caesar i  nTintiata  essent,  legdtos  ml  se  venire  ius- 
sit, when  this  was  reported  to  Caesar,  he  ordered  the  ambassa- 
dors to  come  to  him. 

*  Cf .  also  tlie  iuterrog^ative  ne,  574. 


THE   PERIOD. 


377 


The  Period  {Periodus), 

594.  By  a  period  is  usually  meant  a  sentence  consist- 
ing of  a  main  clause  and  one,  or,  generally,  several  subor- 
dinate clauses,  in  which  the  parts  are  gracefully  balanced 
and  the  sense  is  not  completed  until  the  end.  But  any 
sentence  in  which  complete  sense  is  not  made  until  the 
last  word  is  reached  may  be  called  a  periodic  sentence. 

595.  The  verb,  from  its  nature,  makes  complete  sense, 
unless  some  word  before  it  indicates  the  contrary  ;  and 
therefore  in  a  periodic  construction  the  verb  tends  to  stand 
last, 

a.  In  dependent  clauses  this  tendency  of  the  verb  to  stand 
last  is  very  much  stron<rer  than  in  independent  clauses. 

Note.  The  Romans  were  especially  fond  of  a  more  or  less  complete 
periodic  structure  of  sentences  in  connected  writing.  This  is  only  another 
way  of  sayinp  that  it  was  a  Roman  habit  of  thought  to  put  the  least  em- 
phatic part  of  a  statement  into  verb  form.* 

596.  (1.)  It  follows  from  the  tendency  to  a  periodic 
structure  that  in  Latin  almost  all  kinds  of  subordinate 
clauses  more  commonly  stand  before  their  main  clause ; 
but :  — 

(2.)  Result  clauses  generally,  causal  and  relative 
clauses  not  uncommonly,  and  others  sometimes,  come 
after  the  main  clause. 

a.  The  difference    between    a   periodic    and    a   non-periodic 
structure  of  sentence  may  be  seen  in  the  following  :  — 
Periodic.     ScTpio,  ut   Hannibalem  ex  Italia  deduceret,  exer- 

citum  in  Africam  traiecit. 
Non-periodic.     ScTpio  in  Africam  traiecit  exercitum,  ut  Han- 
nibalem ex  Italia  dtdiiceret. 
Note  1.     It  is  a  very  common  form  of  period  to  begin  the  sentence  thus 

•  The  proportion  of  sentences  with  the  verb  last  in  Cicero  is  somewhat 
more  than  fifty  per  cent,  in  Caesar  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  and  in 
Latin  prose  in  general  rather  less  than  sixty  per  cent. 


378 


SYNTAX. 


with  some  word  belonging^  to  the  main  clause,  then  to  insert  the  subordi- 
nate clause  or  clauses,  and  finally  to  brinj-  in  the  rest  of  the  main  clause 
with  its  verb  standing  last.  This  is,  in  fact,  the  kind  of  sentence  to  which 
the  name  "  period  "  most  properly  applies,  perioiius  being  the  Greek  word 
iripioZos  {ire pi,  round,  dUs,  way,  road)  =  Latin  ambitus,  a  going  round, 
I.  €.,  a  coming  back  to  the  starting-point. 

Note  2.  The  heaping  of  Jinite  verbs  at  the  end  of  a  period  should  be 
avoided.  Generally  there  is  an  infinitive  or  other  close  modifier  of  the 
main  verb  which  emphasis  allows  to  bo  kept  for  the  last  place  but  one, 
thus  separating  the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause  from  the  main  verb,' 
which  closes  the  period. 

Note  3.  The  fondness  of  the  Romans  for  simplicity  and  directness 
created  in  their  speech  a  certain  tendency  to  make  the  most  emphatic  part 
of  their  thought  also  grammatically  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  —  in  other 
words,  the  emphatic  word  (occupying  the  first  place  in  the  sentence)  is  a 
little  oftener  the  subject  than  not.  The  common  doctrine,  however,  which 
teaches  that  the  regular  order  for  a  Latin  sentence  is  "  subject  first  and 
verb  last,"  is  erroneous,  and  besides  causing  various  misconceptions  in 
points  of  detail  gives  the  learner  a  very  uu-Latin  mechanical  style.  While 
It  is  true  that  of  the  sentences  which  have  a  subject  expressed  about  fifty- 
two  per  cent  have  the  subject  first,  and  about  fifty-seven  per  cent  have 
the  verb  last,  only  about  thirty-four  per  cent  have  both  subject  first  and 
verb  last.  In  those  sentences,  furthermore,  which  have  no  subject  ex- 
pres.sed,  the  verb  comes  last  only  about  fifty-eight  times  out  of  a  hundred. 

697.  (1.)  In  historical  narrative,  philosopliical  expo- 
sition, and  other  continuous  writing,  successive  sentences 
are  more  closely  united  into  a  series  in  Latin  tlian  in 
English. 

(2.)  This  is  done  largely  by  choosing  as  the  most  em- 
phatic word  to  be  placed  first  in  each  sentence  one  that 
refers  (especially  by  way  of  contrast)  to  something  men- 
tioned in  the  latter  part  of  the  previous  sentence.  Ex- 
amples are :  — 

Sed  quis  er/d  sum  aut  quae  est  in  mefacultas?  doctorum 
est  ista  cmsuetudo  eaque  Graecdrum,  ut  ils  potmtur  de  qua  dis- 
putent  qvamv'is  suhltd,  but  who  am  I  or  what  skill  is  there  in 
me  ?  To  the  trained  philosophers,  and  those,  too,  Greek  philo- 
sophers, belongs  that  habit  of  allowing  a  question  to  be  set  them 
for  discussion  on  the  spur  of  the  mon>ent  (Cic,  Am.,  5,  17). 


ANAPHORA   AND   CHIASMUS. 


379 


Qua  re  sif)f  habeant  sapientiae  nomen  et  invidiosum  et  ob- 
scurum ;  concedant  ut  viri  boni  fuerint.  N©  id  quidem 
facient:  negabunt  id  7usi  sap ientl  posse  concedl^thereiove  let 
them  keep  for  themselves  the  invidious  and  vague  word  '^'  phi- 
losopher," but  grant  that  these  people  were  r/ood  men.  They 
will  not  do  even  this  :  they  will  say  it  cannot  be  granted  of  any 
one  but  a  philosopher  (Cic,  Am.,  5,  18). 

Sollemne  odBtuin  ex  Arcadia  instituisse  Pana  venerantes 
quern  Romani  deinde  vocaverunt  Inuum.  Huic  dedi- 
tis  ludicro,  cum  sollemne  notum  esset,  msidiatOs  oh  tram 
praedae  HmTssae  latrones,  cum  Rdmuliis  vl  se  defendisset, 
Remum  cepisse,  captum  rerfi  Amulio  tradidisse,  Tdtro  ac- 
cusantes.  Crimini  maxima,  dahant,  etc,  he  had  established 
a  sacred  festival  brought  from  Arcadia,  consisting  of  certain 
rites  performed  bv  young  men  in  honor  of  Pan,  whom  the 
Romans  afterwards  called  Inuus.  Since  this  was  a  well  known 
event,  the  robbers,  who  were  full  of  rage  at  the  loss  of  their 
booty,  made  a  plot  to  attack  [the  shepherd  boys]  wliilo  busied 
with  the  festival.  Romulus  succeeded  in  defending  liimself,  but 
they  took  Remus,  and,  liaving  taken  him,  handed  him  over  to 
king  Amulhis  with  a  gratuitous  accusation.  Their  main  charge 
was,  etc.  (Liv.,  i.,  5,  2-3). 

Anaphora  and  Chiasmus. 

598.  The  Romans  had  also  a  great  fancy  for  antitheses, 
or  the  setting  off  against  each  other  of  the  corresponding 
parts  of  two  expressions  or  statements. 

(1.)  When  the  corresponding  parts  of  two  or  more 
phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences  stand  in  the  same  order, 
the  arramrement  is  called  anaphora. 

(2.)  When  the  corresponding^  parts  stand  in  opposite 
orders,  the  arrangement  is  called  chiasmus,  or  the  cUas- 
tic  order.     Thus  :  — 

•  From  the  Greek  aya<p(p<c,  bring  up  ;  hence,  the  repeating  of  tlie  order. 


380 


SYNTAX. 


Anaphora.  Chiasmus. 

Quid  clTeam  de  moribus  facil-         Aeque  iucunda  erit  simpli 

limls,  de  pietate  in  matrem,  citas  dissmtientls  quam  coin. 

hberalitate  in  sordres,  boni-  prohantis  auctoritas    (Plin 

tate     i,i    sitds,     iustitia     'm  Ep.,  iii.,  4,  9). 
omnesi  (Cic,  Am,,  3,  11).  Si  hostium  fuit  ille  sanguis 

Ita  recta  mgenia  dlhilltat  summa  mUltum  pietus  •  nefi 

veivcundia,  perversa   cdnfir-  rlum  sceltis,  si  civium  (Cic 

mat  audacia  (Plin.,  Ep.,  iv.,  7).  FhiL,  xiv.,  3,  6). 

a.  When  alter  .  .  .  alter  are  used,  referring  to  two  tliinrrs 
already  mentioned,  they  are  usually  arranged  chiasticaUy; 
as  I ' 

In  quo  quid  potest  esse  mall,  rum  inors  nee  ad  vivos  per- 
tiiieat  nee  ad  mortuos  ?  Alter!  nrdll  sunt,  alteros  ndn 
attinget,  but  in  this  what  evil  can  there  be,  since  death  concerns 
neither  the  living  nor  the  dead  ?  The  one  have  no  existence, 
and  It  will  not  touch  the  others  (Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  38,  91). 

Note.  In  chiasmus  the  balanced  phrases  consist  usually  of  only  two 
terms  each,  and  the  name  comes  from  the  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter 
X  {chi),  suggested  by  the  criss-cross  arrangement. 

Certain  Minor  Points  of  Order. 

699.  Certain  minor  points  with  regard  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sentence  deserve  notice,  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  more  rhetorical  writers,  especially  Cicero,  were  careful 
to  make  their  sentences  eujjhonious  and  rhythmically  smooth. 
This  they  accomplished  by  choosing  ♦  words  which  in  the  posi- 
tions required  by  their  relations  of  emphasis  i,roduced  a  i)leasing 
variety  by  their  alternations  of  long  with  short  syllables  and  of 
accented  with  unaccented  parts,  and  also  by  paying  i,articular 
attention  to  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Cicero  declares  himself  especially  fond  of  certain  cadences 
at  the  end  of  a  sentence ;  namely,  _  ^  _  (cretic),  as,  pmu- 
lant;  _^^   (dactyl),  ^^,  reximus  ;  _^^^_>^  (1st  paeon  with 

*  Not  by  changing  the  order,  as  if  the  Romans  thought  their  sentences 
out  m  words  first,  and  afterwards  settled  the  order. 


minor  points  of  order. 


381 


a  trochee  or  spondee),  as,  esse  videdtur  ;  and,  above  all, 
_  ^  _  w  (double  trochee),  as,  comj)rohavit.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  rhytlini  _  ^  w  -  i«:  (dactyl  and  spondee,  i.  e.,  the  ending  of  a 
regular  hexameter  verse),  was  rather  avoided  ;  2i%,degere  po&sit. 
It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  a  false  emphasis  is  never 
allowed  for  the  sake  of  a  more  rhythmical  ending. 

h.  The  emphases  of  the  early  part  of  a  sentence  are  often 
fixed  by  the  logical  sequence  of  the  ideas  in  their  relation  to  the 
previous  sentence,  but  towards  the  end  the  distinctions  of  em- 
phasis are  less  sharp,  and  it  frequently  depends  on  the  mere 
choice  of  the  writer  from  which  of  two  or  three  slightly  differ- 
ent points  of  view  the  closing  ideas  shall  be  presented. 

c.  Not  infrequently  the  verb  occupies  the  last  place  but  one 
in  the  sentence.  The  commonest  cases  are  (1)  when  the  verb 
stands  between  a  noun  and  a  modifying  adjective  or  genitive, 
(2)  when  the  verb  precedes  an  infinitive  which  depends  upon 
it,  (3)  when  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  kept  for  tlie  last  place.' 
Thus  :  — 

(1.)   Ut  ulla  intermissio  fiat  offlci  (Cic,  Am.,  2,  8). 
(2.)   Quantas  vix  queo  dicere  (Cic,  Am.,  6,  22). 
(3.)  JNe  te...  dissereatem  deficiat  oratio  (Cic,  Re  Pub., 
i.,  23,  37). 

Note.  Sometimes  there  is  an  evident  gain  in  emphasis  in  thus  making 
the  verb  a  little  more  prominent  than  the  other  word,  but  sometimes  the 
difference  in  emphasis  is  so  slight  that  the  arrangement  seems  rather  to 
have  been  made  for  euphony.  Thus,  in  the  last  ease  above,  the  difference 
in  emphasis  is  easily  appreciable  according  as  dejiciat  oritio  or  Gratid  defi- 
ciat is  written;  in  the  second  case  it  is  less  easy  to  feel  an  emphasis  on 
queo ;  in  the  first  case  the  shade  of  emphasis  is  intangible,  but  the  rhetorical 
effect  of  the  separation  of  intermissio  and  ofiict  is  very  distinct. 

d.  The  difference  between  the  ordinary  accent  of  English 
and  of  Latin  sentences  sometimes  tends  to  make  a  Latin  empha- 
sis seem  unnatural  to  us,  especially  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 
For  so  far  as  we  mark  emphasis  by  position  at  all,  the  last  place 
in  our  sentences  is  the  most  emphatic. 

Note  1.     Such  cases  occur  chiefly  — 

(1.)  In  carefully  balanced  pairs  of  sentences  where  all  the  words  are 


382 


SYNTAX. 


forcible,  as  in  the  second  example  of  anaphora  (598)  above.  Thus-  ita 
recta  ingenia  debilitat  vericundia,  perversa  confirmat  auddcia.  Here  there 
are  three  pairs  of  contrasts,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  that  one  is  stronger 
than  another,  except  that  an  En-lish  accent  tends  to  make  us  give  the 
contrast  between  verecundia  and  auddcia  a  little  more  force  than  the  others 
To  the  Roman,  however,  so  far  as  there  was  a  difference  it  was  in  favor 
of  the  contrast  between  recta  ingenia  and  perversa. 

(2.)  In  a  similar  single  sentence,  where  the  last  word  has  a  certain  em- 
phasis, though  the  words  before  it  are  still  more  emphatic ;  as,  ex  tribus 
primis  generihus,  longe  praestat,  mcd  sententid,  regium  (Cic,  Re  Pdb.,  i.,  45 
69).  The  proper  relative  emphases  here  can  be  expressed  roughly  by  trans- 
lating thus:  "The  roj/al  is  in  MY  opinion  BY  FAR  the  best  of  the 
FIBST  THREE  KIXD.n." 

(3.)  When  the  last  word  is  a  proper  name.  Thus,  the  sentence  tantum 
abest  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  Usque  eo  difficiles  dc  morosl  simus,  ut  nobis  n6n 
satisfaciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Cic,  Or.,  29,  104),  means  "so  far  am  I  from 
admiring  my  own  efforts  that  I  am  critical  and  exacting  to  such  a  degree 
that  Demosthenes  himself  does  not  SATISFY  iMEV'  At  first  sight  the 
meaning  might  seem  to  be  ''  that  /  am  not  satisfied  with  Demosthenes 
,  HLM.>ELF,"  but  the  Latin  order  for  that  would  be  ut  ipse  Demosthenes 
nobis  non  satisfaciat* 


*  In  thus  giving  a  different  explanation  from  the  usual  one  of  passages 
like  the  two  last  quoted,  I  regret  that  it  would  take  too  much  space  to  set 
forth  here  the  reasons  for  my  opinion.  A  study  of  very  many  instances 
has  convinced  me  that  this  opinion  is  correct.  It  is,  of  course,  inherent  Iv 
possible  that  the  last  word  in  the  cases  given  should  be  the  most  emphatic, 
and  tradition  has  made  it  seem  more  natural  to  regard  them  so ;  but  when 
1  put  the  following  arrangements  beside  each  other :  — 

longe  praestat  med  sententid  regium  ; 

regium  med  sententid  longe  praestat  ; 

ipse  Demosthenes  nobis  non  satisfacit ; 

nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes, 
and  find  in  Cicero  near  this  last  order  the  foUowing  :  — 

itaque  si  pdrgdns  iocdtur  Demosthenes, 

where  nobody  makes  -  Demosthenes  "  the  emphatic  word,  and,   on  the 
other  hand, 

ut  Aeschini  ne  Demosthenes  quidem  videdtur  Attice  dicere, 
and  cum  etiam  Dhnosthenes  exagititur  ut putidus  (Or.,  8,  26  and  27), 
I  cannot  believe  that  so  practical  a  people  as  the  Romans  used  the  dif- 
ferent arrangements  only  for  the  sako  of  variety,  nor  can  I  find  any  better 
explanation  than  the  one  suggested. 


VERSIFICATION. 


383 


Note  2.  So  also  an  emphasis  is  sometimes  repeated  for  rhetorical  effect 
where  an  alternation  of  emphasis  would  seem  more  natural  to  us.  Thus  :  — 

Qudlis,  ut  arbitror,  nemo  umquam  erit,  vt  confirmdre  possum,  nemo 
certe  fuit  (Cic,  Am.,  3,  lo) ;  nam  plurimum  fide,  plurimum  veri- 
tate,  plurimum  intellegeutia  praestat  (Plin.,  Ep.,  iii.,  2,  3)- 

Here  tlie  Roman  mind  is  concentrated  for  the  moment  on  the  given 
expressions  as  individual  phrases,  while  we  are  inclined  to  think  rather  of 
their  relation  to  each  other  as  parts  of  a  whole.  Sometimes,  however,  we, 
too,  should  repeat  the  emphasis  as  the  Roman  does.     Thus :  — 

Qua  re  (juod  dandum  est  amicitiac,  large  dabitur  d  me,  ut  tecum  agam,  Serv'i, 
ndn  secus  dc  si  meus  esset  frdter,  qui  7nihi  est  cdrissimus,  istd  in  loco  ;  quod 
tribuendum  est  officio,  Jidei,  reliqidni,  id  ita  moderdbor  ut  meminerim,  mi 
contrd  amici  studium  pro  amici  periculo  dicere,  ...  so  as  to  remember 
that  though  it  is  a  friend  whose  desire  I  oppose,  it  is  also  a  friend  whom 
my  speech  tries  to  shield  from  danger  (Cic,  Mdr.,  4,  lO). 


VERSIFICATION  (Versljicatid). 

600.  In  poetry,  unlike  prose,  the  words  are  marked  off 
into  regular  divisions  of  ^fm^',  called  feet  (pedes).  A 
combination  of  a  fixed  number  of  feet  constitutes  a  line 

or  VERSE  (versus), 

601.  The  unit  of  measurement  is  the  quantity  or  dura- 
tion of  one  short  syllable  or  one  MORA.     (See  26,  «.) 

602.  Feet  consist  of  three  morae,  or  of  four  morae,  a 
few  also  of  five  morae,  making  thus  divisions  of  time  like 
the  measures  of  music,  as  follows :  — 

(1.)  Three-time  measure  (|). 

Trochee  -  v/        (musically  f  p    ),      as,  arma. 

Iambus  ^  -         (     "  ?  r    )'       "    «'*^^^- 

Tribrach  s^  v.  v^    (     "  p  f  ?  )»   "   f^^^^' 

(2.)  Four-time  (or  two-time)  measure  (|  =  |). 
Dactyl  -WW  (musically  f  ^  )»     as,  corpora. 

Anapaest  ^  w  -  (      "  l/  f   )»     "  domini. 

Spondee  -  -  (      «  f  f   ),         "  fundunt, 

Proceleusraaticwwww(      "  IS  lJ   )^  "    hominibus. 


384 


VERSIFICATION. 


ICTUS;   THESIS   AND   ARSIS. 


385 


(3.)  Five-time  measure  (|).* 

Cretic  ^  ^  -  (musically  ^  J  ^  ), 


ii 


n 


I  1  ). 

r  LIT  )• 

p  p  ^ 


u 


as,  castitas. 
Catones, 
temporibus 

"'    celeritas. 


a 


Bacchius  v/ ( 

1st  Paeon  -  w  w  ( 

4th  Paeon  ^  v  w  -  (      **  f  r  T  T    ), 

To  these  may  be  added  the  foUowin*'- :  -  - 

a.  Six-time  measure  (|  =  J). 

Greater  Ionic  -  -  ^  ^  (nmsically  ff  [j^  ),    as,  correa:/mM5. 

Lesser  Ionic  ^  v.  -  -     (       «         L^  f  f   )»   ''   properabant. 

Choriambus  -  V  ^ -.      (       "         f  ?  f  f   )'   ''    terrificant. 

Note.  Several  other  varieties  of  feet  are  named  by  the  ancient  ^am- 
marians,  but  are  discarded  by  the  usage  of  to-day,  as  unnecessary  in  ex- 
plaining  Latin  versification.     They  are  :  — 


Pyrrhic  ^  w  i 
Amphibrach  w  —  w  t 

Antibacchius w  , 

Molossus > 

Dispondee , 

Ditrochee  -  v  -  w  , 
Diiambus  w  —  w  —  » 

Antispast  w ^  » 

2d  Paeon  w  —  v./  w  ? 
3d  Paeon  w  ^  -  w  ^ 

1st  Epitrite  ^ ? 

2d  Epitrite  -  v^/ » 

3d  Epitrite v./  —  > 

4th  Epitrite v^ , 


as,    deus. 


(( 


(( 


(( 


amare. 

Romdnus. 

contendunt. 

conJilxerurU. 

comprobdvit. 

amdvcrant. 

adhaesisse. 

potentia. 

animdtus. 

amdverunt. 

conditores. 

discordids. 
adduxistis. 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  four-syllabled  feet  are  merely  compounds  of 
the  two-syllabled. 

Different  Kinds  of  Verse. 
603.  Verse   is  distinguished  according  to  the  kind  of 
foot  which  forms  its  basis ;  as,  dactylic^  anapaestic^  tro- 
chaic^ iambic^  Ionic ^  etc. 

*  This  time  is  very  rare  in  music. 


604.  Most  kinds  of  verse  are  named,  according  to  the 
number  of  feet  which  they  contain,  dimeter^  trimeter^  te- 
trameter^ pentameter^  hexameter  (i.  e.,  measures  of  two, 
three,  four,  five,  or  six  feet). 

Thus,  a  dactylic  hexameter  is  a  dactylic  line  of  six  feet. 

605.  Trochaic,    iambic,    and    anapaestic    verses    are 

either  — 

(1.)  Reckoned  by  pairs  of  feet  (dipodies^,  or  — 
(2.)  Named   by   Latin   adjectives   in  -arius,  used   as 
nouns,  and  denoting  the  number  of  feet  in  the  verse. 

Thus,  an  iambic  line  of  six  feet  is  called  either  an  iambic 
TRIMETER  (line  of  three  measures  or  dipodies)  or  an  iambic 
SENARius  (line  of  six  iambic  feet)  ;  a  trochaic  line  of  eight 
feet  is  called  either  a  trochaic  tetrameter  or  a  trochaio 

OCTONARIUS. 

a.  A  combination  of  two  verses  is  sometimes  called  a  distich  ;  a  half 

verse,  a  hemistich. 

6.  A  verse  sometimes  lacks  a  syllable  at  the  end,  and  is  then  called 
CATALECTic;  if  it  is  complete  it  is  called  acatalectic  ;  if  it  lacks  a  whole 
foot  it  is  sometimes  called  brachycatalectic. 

c.  Sometimes  a  verse  has  an  extra  syllable  or  foot  at  the  end,  and  is 
then  called  hypercatalectic  or  hypermeter. 

d.  The  term  penthemimeris  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  a  portion  of 
a  verse  consisting  of  two  feet  and  a  half  (measured  always  from  the  be- 
ginning). Less  common  are  hepthemimeris  (three  feet  and  a  half), 
TRiHEMiMERis  (one  foot  and  a  half),  and  other  like  terms. 

Metrical  Accent;  Thesis  and  Arsis. 

606.  One  syllable  in  every  foot  of  a  verse  receives  a 
greater  stress  of  voice  than  the  others.  This  is  called  the 
metrical  accent,  or  ICTUS. 

607.  The  part  of  the  foot  which  receives  the  ictus  is 
called  the  thesis,  the  rest  of  the  foot  is  called  the  arsis.* 

*  Thesis  (from  rldrifii,  put)  means  the  downward  movement  of  the  foot 
in  beating  time  or  marching;  arsis  (from  aXpoa,  raise),  the  upward  beat  or 
raising  of  the  foot.  Through  a  misunderstanding  of  the  Greek,  the  mean- 
ing of  the  terms  thesis  and  arsis  has  commonly  been  reversed,  the  accented 
part  of  the  verse  being  called  the  ar»i>and  the  unaccented  part  the  thesis. 


«%» 


386 


VERSIFICATION. 


FIGURES   OF   VERSIFICATION. 


387 


Note.     The  alternation  of  thesis  and  arsis  produces  what  ia  called  the 
RHYTHM  of  the  verse. 

Caesura  axd  Diaeresis. 

608.  (1.)  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called 
caesura  (i.  e.,  a  cutting)  ;  the  ending  of  a  word  coin- 
ciding  with  the  end  of  a  foot  is  called  diaeresis. 

(2  )  In  the  hexameter  and  several  other  kinds  of  verse 
some  one  caesura  generally  marks  a  pause  in  the  sense, 
and  is  called  the  principal  caesura,  or  tlie  caesura  of  the 
verse. 

a.  In  the  hexameter  the  principal  caesura  occurs  most  com- 
monly in  the  third  foot;  sometimes  in  the  fourth  foot.  In  the 
latter  case  there  is  usually  also  a  slight  caesural  break  in  the 
second  foot.  A  diaeresis  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot  is  called 
the  BUCOLIC  diaeresis,  from  its  frequent  occurrence  in  Greek 
pastoral  poetry. 

b.  When  a  caesura  occurs  after  the  thesis  of  a  foot.  It  is  called 
a  MASCULINE  caesura  ;  in  the  middle  of  the  arsis  it  is  called  a 
FEMININE  caesura.  A  masculine  caesura  in  the  third  foot  is 
sometimes  called  a  penthemimeris,  or  penthemimeral  cae- 
sura. 

For  examples  see  the  dactylic  hexameter  (614). 

Figures  of  Versificatiox. 

609.  The  following  peculiarities  in  the  treatment  of 
words  in  verse  are  called  figures  of  versification  :  — 

(1.)  A  vowel,  or  m  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  regularly  elided 
before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.  This  elision 
(striking  out)  consists  in  partially  suppressintr  the  vowel  or  syl- 
lable, not  in  wholly  omitting  it.  It  is  also  called  synaloepha 
(smearing  together).     Thus  :  — 

Quidve  moror?  s(i)  omnes  un(6)  6rdin(e)   habetis  Achi- 
v^s.  (Verg.,  Ae,,  ii.,  102.) 

Cf.  th'  for  the,  in  English. 

a.  The  monosyUables  dd,  dem,  spi,  spem,  sim,  sto,  stem,  qui  (when  plu- 


ral), with   the   interjections  o,  heu,  a,  pro,  vae,  vah,  are   not  subject  to 
elision,  though  6  is  sometimes  made  short. 

b.  Before  a  pause,  a  vowel  which  would  otherwise  be  elided  is  sometimes 
retained,  especially  in  comedy.  The  succession  of  vowel  sounds*  thus 
caused  is  called  mATUS  (gaping)  ;  as :  — 

Ter  sunt  conati  imponere  Pelio  Ossam.         (Verg.,  Cr.,  i,  281.) 

Note.  When  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  ending  a  Greek  word  thus 
remains  unelided  in  the  arsis,  it  is  usually  made  short  (systole),  as  the  O  of 
Pelio  in  the  example. 

c    The  elision  of  a  syllable  in  m  is  sometimes  called  ECTHWPSis  (squ^r-    ^ 

ingout).   ^— ^^  i..,^^,ji^  .^yu^^  <^^,  it-t  i—  -  j^>.,7r^ 

d.  In  the  early  poets  final  s  and  its  preceding  vowel  were  sometimes 
elided  before  a  vowel,  and  a  vowel  before  final  s  was  not  always  lengthened 
when  the  next  word  began  with  a  consonant.     (Gf.  18,  rf.) 

(2.)  Sometimes  the  vowels  i  and  e  are  made  partial  con- 
sonants, thus  making  one  syllable  of  two.  This  is  called  synae- 
resis.     Thus  :  — 

Aurea  percussum  virga  versumque  venenis. 

(Verg.,  -4e.,  vii.,  190.) 

(3.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into 
two  is  called  piaerf^ls  or  dialysis  ;  as,  sil-WrB.  for  si^va.  This 
is  chiefly  confined  to  a  few  syllables  consisting  of  V  or  gu,  qu, 
SU,  and  a  following  vowel,  and  is  in  most  cases  really  a  survival 
of  an  earher  form  of  the  given  word. 

(4.)  A  short  syllable  is  occasionally  lengthened  {diastole). 
This  occurs  chiefly  in  the  thesis  before  a  caesura. 

(5.)  A  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  verse  is  occasionally  elided  be- 
fore a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  verse.  This  is  called 
synapheia.     Thus  :  — 

Omnia  Mercurio  similis,  vocemque  colorem  qu(e) 

Et  crines  flavos,  etc.  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iv.,  558,  559.) 

610.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  except  anapaestic 
(see  630 )  may  be  either  long  or  short  indifferently. 

611.  The  metrical  reading  of  verse  is  called  SCANNING. 
a.  Care  should  be  taken  in  scanning  Latin  verse  not  only  to 

♦  The  case  of  m  preceded  by  a  vowel  is  hardly  an  exception,  because  the 
m  was  so  feebly  pronoimced  as  merely  to  nasaliz«  the  vowel.     (Cf.  18,  d.) 


) 


388 


VERSIFICATION. 


1, 


mark  the  feet  accurately  in  regard  to  quantity  and  ictus,  but  also 
to  keep  the  words  distinct,  observing  the  pauses  as  in  prose. 
When  the  word-accent  is  at  variance  with  the  ictus,  the  latter 
is  to  be  made  the  more  prominent. 

612.  A  fixed  number  of  verses  occurring  in  a  regularly 
repeated  order,  whether  the  verses  be  of  the  same  kind  or 
of  different  kinds,  is  called  a  strophe  or  stanza,  and  is 
often  named  for  some  poet ;  as,  the  Alcaic  strophe  or 
Horatian  stanza,  the  Sap^jhic  strophe. 

613.  A  long  syllable  is  properly  just  twice  the  length  of 
a  short  syllable,  and  all  the  feet  of  a  verse  are  of  exactly 
equal  length  ;  but :  — 

a.  A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  lengthened  so  as  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  three  or  even  to  four  short  ones,  and  is  then  denoted  by 
the  signs  L  and  u  respectively. 

h,  A  rest  of  the  length  of  one  or  of  two  short  syllables  some- 
times occurs  at  the  end  of  a  foot.  These  rests  are  denoted  by 
the  signs  A  and  A  respectively. 

The  Different  Metres. 

Dactylic  Metres. 

614.  (1.)  The  DACTYLIC  hexameter  *  consists  of  six 
dactyls,  of  which  the  last  is  incomplete. 

(2.)  For  any  of  the  first  four  feet  spondees  may  be 
substituted.  A  spondee  rarely  occurs  as  the  fifth  foot 
also,  and  the  verse  is  then  called  a  spondaic  verse. . 

Note.  The  principal  caesura  (marked  thus  ||)  is  most  commonly  after 
the  thesis  of  the  third  foot  (penthemimeris)  ;  often,  however,  after  the 
thesis  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  then  there  is  usually  a  lesser  caesura  in  the 
second  foot.  In  many  lines,  however,  the  principal  caesura  is  in  the  arsis 
of  the  third  foot  (feminine  caesura).  A  bucolic  diaeresis  frequently  occurs 
in  pastoral  poetry  like  Virgil's  Eclogues  and  Georgics. 

*  Often  called  the  Heroic  Verse. 


DACTYLIC   METRES.  389 

The  scheme  of  the  metre  is  therefore  as  follows :  — 


2  vjv    -^  WW    -^  II  v;^    -  v^^    "^  ^ 


f-* 


SJ        —  w 


or  musically 

rL'irCj'irrL/irtj'ircj'irfii 

Thus :  — 

At  tuba  I  ternbi|lem  sonijtum  ||  procul  |  acre  ca|noro. 

(Verg.,  Ae,,  ix.,  503.) 

Intonlsi  crilnes  ||  lon|ga  cerlvice  flu|ebant. 

(Tibull.,  iii.,  4,  27.) 

Ludere  I  quae  velllem  ||  calajmo  per|misit  a|grestl. 

(Verg.,  ^^c,  i.,  10.) 

Non  medi|a  de  |  gente  1|  Phryjgum  exejdisse  ne|fandis. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  v.,  785.) 

Cf .  in  English  :  — 

Meanwhile,  apart,  at  the  head  of  the  hall,  the  priest  and  the 

herdsman 
Sat,  conversing  together  of  past  and  present  and  future  ; 
While  Evangeline  stood  like  one  entranced,  for  within  her 
Olden  memories  rose,  and  loud  in  the  midst  of  the  music 
Heard  she  the  sound  of  the  sea,  and  an  irrepressible  sadness 
Came  o'er  her  heart,  and  unseen  she  stole  forth  into  the  gar- 

^^^  (Longfellow's  Evangeline,) 

Note.     A  light  and  rapid  movement  is  produced  by  the  frequent  recur- 
rence  of  dactyls  ;  a  slow  and  heavy  one  by  that  of  spondees ;  as :  — 

Quadrupe  dante  i  pu  trem  soniltu  II  quatit  I  ungula  |  campum. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  vm.,  596.) 

IllI  in'ter  se'se  II  ma'gna  vl  |  bracchia  !  tollunt. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  vui.,  4o2.) 

615.  The  ELEGIAC  stanza  consists  of  a  dactylic  hexa- 
meter alternating  with  a  verse  consisting  of  two  half 
hexameters  each  of  which  has  its  last  foot  incomplete 
(i.  e.,  one  long  syllable). 

a.  Of  the  half  verses  only  the  first  admits  a  spondee  instead 

•  The  last  foot  is  strictly  -^  v  A. 


390 


VERSIFICATION. 


of  a  dactyl,  and  both  must  end  with  the  end  of  a  word, 
scheme  is  therefore  as  follows  :  — 


The 


—  W         —  W 


^w 


^      -^w 


w  w 


-^^^      -^A 


and  musically  the  half  verses  are  represented  thus  : 

ii-iii^ii^iiLj|iuir^l 

Thus:  — 

Flebilis  I  indijgnos  ||  Ele|geia  |  solve  cajpillos 

Ah  nimis  |  ex  ve|ro  ||  nunc  tibi  |  nomen  e|rit. 

^-   .     ^     ,.  ^  (Ov.,  Am.,  iii.,  9,  3.) 

Ci.  in  ±.nglish  :  — 

Lo  !  in  a  land  that  is  new,  a  new-born  Salamis  waits  you. 
Hearts  that  often  ere  now  perils  have  brav'd  at  my  side 
Graver  by  far,  —  I  pledge  you.     To-night  be  merry.     To-mor- 
row 

Speed  once  more  our  barks  over  the  measureless  sea. 

(S.  H.  Hodgson  :   Trans,  of  Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  7.) 

Other    dactylic    verses   are   rare.     The   following    occur   in 
strophes  :  — 

,  616.  The  Alcmanian  strophe  consists  of  a  dactylic 
hexameter  alternating  with  a  dactylic  tetrameter.  The 
scheme  is :  — 


^w 


J.\^\j      -^  II  vv      —  w      -^vw       -^  W 


—  \j\j      -^  \^\j      -^w      —\D 


Thus :  — 

Ambigu|am  tel|lure  no|va  ||  Sala|mlna  fulturam. 

0  forjtes  pejioraque  |  pass! 
Mecum  |  saepe  vi|ri,  ||  nunc  |  vino  |  pellite  (  curas ; 

Cras  in  I  gens  ite|rabimus  !  aequor. 
(Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  7  ;  the  original  of  the  selection  under  616.) 

617.  The  FIRST  Archilochian  strophe  consists  of 
a  dactylic  hexameter  alternating  with  a  dactylic  penthe- 
mimeris  (two  feet  and  a  half).     The  scheme  is :  — 

•^  V  <»/         -^    V   \i/         "^ 


TROCHAIC   AND   IAMBIC   METRES. 


391 


Thus :  — 

Frlgora  |  mitelscunt  ||  Zephy|ris,  ver  |  proterit  |  aetas 

Interi|tura,  si|mul 
Pomiter  |  autura|nus  ||  fruiges  efjfuderit,  |  et  mox 

Bruma  re|currit  inlers.  (Hor.,  Od.,  iv.,  7.) 


Trochaic  and  Iambic  Metres. 

618.  The  longer  trochaic  and  iambic  measures  belong 
chiefly  to  dramatb  poetry.  For  their  understanding  the 
following  preliminary  points  are  necessary  :  — 

(1.)  When  a  spondee  is  substituted  for  a  trochee  or  an  iam- 
bus,  it  loses  a  portion  of  its  full  time,  and  is  called  an  irra- 
tional SPONDEE.*  This  is  represented  by  the  sign  _  >  (or  mu- 
sically  f  J*)  when  it  stands  for  a  trochee,  and  by  the  sign  >  - 

when  it  stands  for  an  iambus. 

(2.)  When  a  long  syllable  in  a  foot  is  exchanged  for  two 
short  syllables,  the  foot  is  said  to  be  resolved,  and  the  resulting 
foot  is  called  a  resolution  of  the  other  foot.  Thus,  a  tribrach 
(w  ^  V.)  is  the  resolution  of  a  trochee  or  an  iambus.  A  spon- 
dee (-  _)  may  be  resolved  into  a  dactyl  (_  ^  w)  or  an  anapaest 
{^  ^  -),  and  these  last  into  a  proceleusmatic   (.^  v^  v  ^). 

(3.)  All  of  the  above  feet  may,  therefore,  occur  in  trochaic 
and  iambic  measures.  When  they  are  used  in  trochaic  verse 
they  have  the  ictus  on  their  first  syllable  ;  when  used  in  iambic 
verse,  the  spondee,  dactyl,  and  tribrach  have  the  ictus  on  the 
second  syllable,  the  anapaest  and  the  (rare)  proceleusmatic  on 

the  third. 

(4.)  A  verse  may  have  an  introductory  syllable  or  two,  like 
the  introiUictory  notes  before  the  first  full  bar  in  music.  These 
inti-oductory  syllables  are  called  anacrusis. 

Trociiaic  Metres. 

619.  The  most  common  trochaic  measures  are  the  SEP- 
TENARius  (tetrameter  catalectic),  and  the  OCTONARIUS 
(tetrameter  acatalectic)* 

*  Sometimes  also  an  irrational  trochee,  or  irrational  iambus,  respectively. 


392 


VERSIFICATION. 


a.  In  each  of  these,  as  used  by  the  early  dramatic  poets 
any  complete  foot  n.ay  be  resolved  into  a  tribrach,  and  for  anJ 
comp  ete  foot  but  the  last  the  spondee  and  its  resolutions  may 
be  substituted.*  These  irregularities  are,  however,  most  freelj 
used  m  the  f,rst  and  fifth  feet.  In  the  late  dran.a  the  substit.!^ 
t.ons  are  eonhned  to  the  second  foot  of  each  di,,ody.  An  ana- 
paest IS  not  used  immediately  after  a  dactyl. 

b.  The  commonest  pause  is  a  diaeresis  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
foot,  and  m  that  case  the  fourth  foot  must  not  be  a  dactyl. 
Otherwise  a  break  almost  invariably  occurs  at  the  end  of  the 
Mth  foot,  generally  with  a  lesser  break  in  the  fourth  or  after 
the  third.  •' 

Note      The  ictus  on  the  second  foot  of  each  dipody  is  less  strono-  than 
that  on  the  first  foot,  and  is  left  unmarked  in  the  scheL  ofThe  metL 

620.    The   possibilities    of    the    septenarius    may    be 
represented  by  the  following  scheme :  — 

^      >  > 


1     "^ 
> 


> 


i  1 


> 


WW  V  w 

WW  v,^ 

i 


—  w     w  A 


or  musically  — 

rfrnrrrrirrriTirrr-'i 

Thus  :  — 

Nuptijus  do|rarad  pairarl  ||missast  |  ancil]Ia:ih|co. 

(Ter.,  An,y  514.) 


I  safne  r^egO  te^ex 
Aesohijnus  odilose 


ercelbo^hodie^ut  ||  dlgnus  |  es,  siH|cerni|um, 
cessat;  ||  prandijum  cor|rumpi|tur; 
Ctes,|pho:autem>  a|more  |  tGtus:||ego  iam  |  prdspicijam  mi|hl. 

^.  .    .^     ,.  ,  (Ter.,  Ad,,  Hues  587-589.) 

Ci.  m  Knghsh  :  — 

Then  the  dreary  shadows  scattered,  like  a  cloud   in  morning's 
breeze, 

And  a  low  deep  voice  within  me  seemM  whispering  words  like 

®^^*  (Whittier's  Cassandra  Smthwick.) 

•  But  the  proceleusmatic  is  very  rare  in  Plautus  and  not  found  in  Ter- 


TROCHAIC   AND   IAMBIC  METRE8. 


393 


621.  The  possibilities  of  the  octonarius  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  following  scheme  :  — 


w 

> 


w 

> 


V  W  WW 

WW  WW 


w  w 


w 

> 


w 

> 


w  w 

WW  WW 


>  > 

WW  WW 

WW  WW 


± 

w  w 


w 

WW 


or  musically  — 

rrrJirrr!JirprPirfrri 

Thus :  — 
Cense 'o.     Sed  !  heus  tu.  |  Quid  vis  ?  ||  Censen  |  posse  |  mOffir- 
mare.  (Ter.,  Erin,,  217.) 

Obse]cro  popu|lare8,  |  ferte  ||  misero>t|que jnnolcenti>u';xilium : 
Subvelnlte^inolpi  TOtilose  ;  ||  nunci|am  iU|co;hic  con^siste. 
Quid  relsjrectas?  fnil  pelrlclist:  ||  numquam,  ]  dum3ego>de-| 
ro,>Ic  tejtanget.  (Ter.,  Ad,,  lines  155-157.) 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

Beams  of  noon,  like  burning  lances,  through  the  tree  tops  flash 

and  glisten. 
As  she  stands  before  her  lover,  with  raised  face  to  look  and  lis- 
ten. (Whittier's  Slaves  of  Martinique.) 

622.  A  TROCHAIC  DIMETER  (catalectic)  (3  1-2  feet) 
occurs  in  the  later  tragedy  (used  strophically).  The 
second  foot  may  be  a  spondee  or  dactyl.     Thus  :  — 

Lenis  |  ac  modi  1  ce   flu] ens 

Aura  1  nee  ver|gens  lajtus.       (Sen.,  Oed,,  line  887.) 

Note.  This  measure  also  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  HiPPONAC- 
TEAN  strophe.  (See  650.)  Other  trochaic  verses  are  occasionally  found, 
chiefly  as  portions  only  of  lines. 


623.  The   IAMBIC  trimeter   (senarius)  is  the   most 
common  of  all  dramatic  measures,  but  the  septenarius 


394 


VERSIFICATION. 


(tetrameter  catalectic)  and  OCTONARIUS    (tetrameter  acq- 
talectic)  are  also  frequently  used. 

a.  Speaking  generally,  the  sanae  substitutions  and  resolutions 
occur  as  with  the  trochaic  measures,  in  any  foot  except  the  last 
among  the  comic  writers,  confined  mostly  to  the  first  foot  of 
each  dipody  in  other  kinds  of  poetry.  The  proceleusmatic  oc- 
curs  chiefly  in  the  first  foot,  and  then  the  third  syllable  (ictus 
syllable)  must  begin  a  word,  and  the  ictus  and  word  accent 
must  coincide.  An  anapaest  immediately  after  a  dactyl  is 
avoided. 

624.  The  sexarius  consists  of  six  iambic  feet.  The 
regular  caesura  is  after  the  first  syllable  of  the  third  foot 
(penthemimeral).  Otherwise,  after  the  arsis  of  the  fourth 
foot  there  is  almost  always  a  caesura,  often  with  a  diaere- 
sis after  the  second  foot. 


The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 


> 


V   W' 


> 

V  v./ 


w  ^ 


> 


I 


> 


V  w 


> 


V   V 


V    V 


Thus  :  — 

Phasellus  ii;ie  ||  quem  [  vide|tis  holspitts.     (CatulL,  4,  1.) 
Storax.|Non  redi|it  ||  hac  |  nocte>  |  cena^Aelschinus 
Neque  ser!volo|rum  ||  quisjquam,  quPadlvorsum'^Ijerant. 
Profeclto^hlc  ve|re  di|cunt :  ||  srab|sls  U8|piam.^ 

(Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  26-28.) 
Cf.  in  English :  — 

O  light  immortal,  winds  on  wings  of  swiftness  borne, 
O  river  sources,  and  the  countless  flashing  smile 
Of  ocean's  wavelets,  universal  mother  earth. 

(L.  Dyer,  Trans,  of  Aesch.,  Prom.,  88  ff.) 

625.  The  septexarius  consists  of  seven  and  a  half 
iambic  feet.  The  regular  break  is  after  the  fourth  foot, 
and  this  foot  must  then  be  a  real  iambus.     If  this  break 


iambic  metres. 


395 


does   not  occur,  there  is  always  a  break  after  the  arsis 
of  the  fiftli  foot. 

The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 


> 

V  Si/ 


> 


v./  w 


> 


2 


> 

v./  w 


Vi/  v./ 


> 


> 


w  s-* 


^1     if  A 


Thus :  — 

Salultant,  ad  I  cenam  |  vocant,  ||  advenjtum  gra|tulan]tur. 

(Ter.,  Eun.,  259.) 

Sed  quid  hoc  \  est?    vide|on  ego  |  Getam  ||  currenltem^huc  ad- 

veni|re? 
Is  est  ijpsus,  ei,  |  timeo  |  miser,  ||  quam  htc^mihi  |  nunc  niin|tiet 
rem.  (Ter.,  Phorm.,  lines  177,  178.) 

Cf .  in  English  *  — 

In  Scarlet  towne,  where  I  was  borne, 

There  was  a  faire  maid  dwellin. 
Made  every  youth  crye  "  Wel-awaye !  " 

Her  name  was  Barbara  Allen.     (Percy's  Beliqiies.) 

626.  The  OCTONARIUS  consists  of  eight  iambic  feet. 
When  the  break  after  the  fourth  foot  occurs  without  eli- 
sion, this  foot  must  be  a  real  iambus,  as  in  the  septenarius. 

The  scheme  is  as  follows :  — 


^    1 
> 


> 


Vi/ 

> 


> 


\^  V 


v/ 

> 

\J   Vi/ 


2. 


> 


\^  Vi/ 


> 

Vi/    Vi/ 


wu 


V  Vi/ 


Thus  :  — 
Domum  ]  mo(lojlbo,>t    adjparejtur  ||  dl|cam,>tque>uc  (  re- 
nunjtio.      ^        ^  (Ter.,  ^71.,  594.) 

Abs    qui  I  VIS    homi|ne,    quomst  |  opus,  ||   benefici|um>ccipelre 

gaujdeas; 
Verum^enim   1   vrr^'idldemura  I  iuvat,    ||    si    quem>e|quomst 


facejre^is  bene|facit. 


(Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  254,  255.) 

•  Written  as  two  lines. 


396 


VERSIFICATION. 


Cf.  in  English  :  *  — 

On  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low, 

All  bloodless  lay  the  untrodden  snow ; 

And  dark  as  winter  was  the  flow 

Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly.  (Campbell.) 

Note.     Iambic  measures  are  sometimes  regrarded  as  trochaic  measures 
with  anacrusis,  and  may  then  be  expressed  musicaUy  as  foUows  :  — 
Senarius :  — 

I      -^^      -A 


w/  :         -i  w       _  ^ 


w       —  \^ 


nrprrirrrfi  rrri 


Septenarius :  — 

nrfrfirrri?irrrrirf| 

Octonarius :  — 


w  :        —  \u      —  w 


-       w 


—  w       —  w 


^w      -A 


Pir?rnrfrifirfrnrfri 

627.  The  pure  iambic  trimeter  (i.  e.,  without  any 
resolutions  or  substitutions)  is  first  found  in  Catullus. 
Thus :  — 

Phase|lus  ilile,  ||  quem  |  vide|tis,  ho|spite8 

Ait  I  fuis|se  ||  na|vium  |  celer|rimus.  (Catull.,  4.) 

628.  The  choliambic  f  measure  is  an  iambic  trimeter 
with  a  trochee  for  the  last  foot.     Thus  :  -— 


V  —        V 


W  —         W  —         —  V 


as :  — 

Miser  |  Catul|le  ||  de|sinas  |  inep|tlre 

Et  quod  I  vides  |  perislse  ||  per|ditum  |  ducas.     (Catull.,  8.) 

a.     The    choliambic    may    also    be    represented    metrically 
thus  :  — 


■^     w- 


II   -^ 


vl^       -  V 


*  Written  as  two  lines. 

t  I.  «.,  lame  iambic.     It  is  also  called  scazon  (hobbHng). 


anapaestic,  bacchiac,  and  cretic  metres.    397 

629  The  iambic  dimeter  (catalectic)  is  found  in  the 
later  tragedies.  It  is  also  c^ed  the  AnacreonUc,  and  is 
used  strophicaUy.     Thus:  — 

Ut  ti|gris  or|ba  gnaltis.      (Sen.,  Med.,  8bJ.) 

Note  Other  iambic  measures  occasionally  occur,  chiefly  as  parts  of 
strS'  or^  single  lines,  especially  the  dimeter  acat^ect.  (.uaternanus) 
and  trimeter  catalectic.     See  650  ff. 

Anapaestic,  Bacchiac,  and   Cretic  Metres. 
Anapaestic,  bacchiac,  and  cretic  measures  are  mostly  confined 
to  the  early  comedy  writers  (especially  Plautus)  and  the  later 
tragic  poets.     The  common  forms  are  as  follows :  — 

AnapaMtic  Metres. 

630.  In  anapaestic  verse  a  spondee,  a  dactyl,  or  a  pro- 
celeusmatic  may  be  substituted  for  an  anapaest,  ihere  is 
a  regular  break  after  the  fourth  foot  in  the  septenarius 
and  octonarius. 

(1.)  Septenarius. 
Quldais?|virome|maloraale|nuptam.  ||   Satin  aujdis  quae  jl 

lie  loquijtur?  .,  .  „  ,  -. 

Satis.     SI  I  sapiamChinc  |  intro:abe|amCubi    nnhi  W  ^^^^    ''^' 
IVIane  :  male^lrit  poti|us.       (Plant.,  Memiech.,  602,  603.) 

Cf.  in  English  :  *  — 

Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note, 
As  his  corse  to  the  rampart  we  hurried  ; 
Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried. 

(Wolfe's  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore.) 

(2.)  Octonarius. 
Mille     mo|d-is     amor   |   igno j randust,    ||    procul     abhiibendust  | 
atque^aplstandust;  _ 

Nam  qurin  almorem  |  praecipiltavit,  ||  peius  pe|rit  quasi  ,  saxo  | 
gaiiat.  (Plant.,  Trin.,  lines  264,  265.) 

*  Written  in  two  lines. 


398 


VERSIFICATION. 


Cf.  in  English  :  *  — 

The  mistletoe  hung  in  the  castle  hall, 
And  the  holly  branch  shone  on  the  old  oak  waU ; 
The  baron's  retainers  were  blithe  and  gay, 
Keeping  their  Christmas  holiday. 

(See  Wadham's  Versification,  p.  Qo.) 
(3.)  Dimeter  acatalectic  (quaternarius). 

Haec  ego  |  quom  cum>ni|mo  meo  |  reputo 
Ubi  quPelget,  quara  |  preti  sit  |  parvi 
Apage,>mor,  |  te,  non  (  places  :  nil  |  trator. 

(Plant.,  Trin,,  lines  256-258.) 
Cf.  in  English  :  * 

'T  is  the  last  rose  of  summer 

Left  blooming  alone  ; 
All  her  lovely  companions 

Are  faded  and  gone.  (x.  Moore.) 

(4.)  Dimeter  catalectic  (paroemiac). 

Quam^hic  rem  |  gerat  ani|mum>dvor|tam. 

(Plaut.,  Trin.,  line  843.) 

ml'^r^'ter   ""'^^  ^'Ty^   f '  ""'"''  ^  '^'  '"''^^'^  -'«'-'-  -^  the 

a   eZs  of  ,I:i  '''''  '^^^.  *^^  P^°^'  ^  -^^  --tly  aa  the  last  hne  of 
a  senes  ot  longer  anapaestic  verses. 

Bacchlac  and  Cretic  Metres. 

1.  S^^* }'  /°,^^^^^^^^  and  cretic  measures  either  (but  not 
both)  of  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  or  a  molossus 

( )  may  be  substituted. 

ii.  The  TETRAMETER  is  the  most  usual  variety  in  each 
of  tliese  measures.  A  break  is  most  common  after  the 
second  foot.     Thus : 

(1.)  Bacchiac  tetrameter.     [Ictus  ^  ^  _] 

Adcur^a|te>gatur,  ||  doctret  di|ligenter, 
Tanta^incepjta  res  est :  ||  baud  somnilculose'^hoc 
*  Written  in  two  lines. 


CHORIAMBIC   AND   IONIC   METRES. 


399 


Agendumst.  ||  Ero^ut  me  |  voles  eslse.     Spero, 
Nam  tu  nunc  1  vidts  pro  |  tuo  ca|ro  capite 
Carum^ofEer|re  me  meum  I  caput  vi|litatl. 

(Plant.,  Capt.y  hnes  226-230.) 

(2.)  Cretic  tetrameter.     [Ictus  ^ v./-] 

Copiast,  I  atque>a  ||  facitis  nos  |  conpotes, 
Secedeniuc  |  nunciam,  |1  si  videltur,  procul, 
NrarbitrT  |  dicta  no  ||  stra>rbitra  |  ri  queant 
Neu  perma|net  palam^haec  ||  nostra  fal|lacia. 

(Plaut.,  Capt.,  lines  217-220.) 

a.  The  last  foot  is  often  incomplete  {tetrameter  catalectic)  ; 

as  t  *— ~* 

Meo  modo~et  I  moribus  |  vivito'anjtiquls. 

(Plaut,  TriH.,  line  295.) 

Note.  In  comedy  the  iambic  senarius  is  used  for  the  scenes  of  spoken 
dialogue;  the  iambic  septcnarius  and  octouarius  and  the  trocha.c  sep^- 
nlrius  arl  used  in  more  or  less  long  passages,  .h,ch  were  dehvered  as 
luauve  with  musical  accompaniment.  The  troch.c  c«tonanus^  *e 
ananaestic  bacchiac,  cretic,  and  the  shorter  trochaic  and  iambic  measures 
r  nsid  Wiac  groups  of  lines  (caUed  cakxica)  which  were  regularly 

sung  to  music. 

Choriambic  and  Ionic  Metres. 

632.    The  CHORIAMBIC  tetrameter  is  occasionally 

found.     [Ictus  ^..-£]     Thus:  — 

Omne  nemus  |  cum  fluvils  |  omne  canat  |  profundura. 

(Claud.,  Nvpt.  Hon.,  u.,  4.) 
KcyrE.  Many  of  the  logaoedic  measures  (see  643)  are  sometimes  scamied 
as  choriambic. 

633   The  LESSER  Ionic  verse  is  found  in  one  ode  of 
Horace.     [Ictus  . w-^  -]     A  strophe  consists  of  ten  feet. 

Thus :  — 

]VIiserarum:e8t  |  nequeCamori  |  dare  ludum  |  neque  dulci 

Malavino^autllavere>utexlanimari 

Metuent^s  1  patruae  veribera  linguae.    (Hor.,  Oc?.,  ui.,  1^) 


400 


VERSIFICATION. 


634.  The  GREATER  Ionic  (Sotadean}  was  used  by  En- 
Bins,  Martial,  and  others.     [Ictus  ^  _  ^  J 

a.  The  early  poets  use  double  trochees  and  other  equivalent 
feet  instead  of  the  Ionic,  and  resolve  a  long  syllable  of  the 
Ionic  freely,  but  Martial  and  the  later  poets  confine  themselves 
chiefly  to  one  resolution  in  a  verse,  and  use  only  the  double 
trochee  as  a  substitution.     Thus  : 

Nam  quam  varia  j  sint  genera  po|ematorum,  |  Balbi, 
Quamque  longe  |  dlstlncta>li  |  a>b  alus  sis,  |  nosce. 

(Ace,  Didasc.) 
Has,  cum  gemi'na  compede,  |  dedicat  ca|tenas, 
Saturne,  tijbl  Zoilus,  |  anulos  pri|ore8.  (Martial.) 

Peculiarities  of  Early  Versificatiox. 

Besides  the  feeble  force  of  s  in  early  prosody  (see  609,  !,</), 
the  following  points  should  be  noted  : 

635.  The  originally  long  quantity  of  certain  final  sylla- 
bles, which  afterwards  became  short,  was  sometimes 
retained.     So  — 

(1.)  -es  (gen.  -itis)  ;  as,  superstes. 
(2.)  -or  (gen.  -oris)  ;  as,  sordr. 

(3.)  Verb  endings  in  -r,  -s,  -t ;  as,  regredxor,  augedt,  fuens, 
mo7iu'it, 

a.  These  irregularities  occur  chiefly  in  Plautus. 

Note  The  final  a  of  the  feminine  singular  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of 
the  first  declension  has  also  often  been  measured  long  in  early  Latin  verse; 
as,  epistula,  bond;  but  many  of  the  best  authorities  now  deny  this  quantity. 

636.  Words  of  two  syllables,  with  the  first  syllable 
short,  often  shorten  a  long  final  vowel ;  as,  nov6 ;  levl ; 

a.  This  shortening  is  particularly  common  before  a  syllable 
which  has  the  verse  accent ;  as,  dai'l  ncL 

*  This  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  word-accent.     It  is  much  easier 
after  a  short  accented  syllable  to  pronounce  a  final  vowel  short  than  long. 


PECULIARITIES   OF   EARLY   VERSIFICATION.         401 

637.  Other  long  syllables  are  not  infrequently  short- 
ened when  they  stand  after  a  short  syllable  *  and  before  a 
syllable  which  has  the  verse  accent;  as,  negat  Fha'nium ; 
vel  6cciditd  ;  sen^ctutem, 

638.  Also  after  a  short  monosyllable  which  has  the 
verse  accent,  a  syllable  may  be  shortened.  Thus :  sed  Id 
quod;  quidlstuc;  ddlpsam, 

a.  So,  too,  the  second  syllable  of  a  word  of  several  syllables, 
if  the  first  is  short  and  has  the  verse  accent ;  as,  voixmtate, 

639.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  long  vowel  (or  -m) 
are  often  employed  before  a  vowel  as  the  thesis  of  a  foot, 
beino-  shortened  instead  of  elided.  Thus  :  qui  aget ;  n§ 
agdii  ;  quam  ego, 

640.  Vowels  which  ordinarily  make  a  syllable  of  their 
own  are  often  run  together  with  a  following  vowel  (even 
though  h  intervene),  thus  making  one  syllable  of  tv\^o. 
This  is  called  SYNIZESIS  or  SYNAERESIS.  Thus :  antehac, 
cfibam   (aibds,  etc.,  always),    mens,    tuns,  fuisse.     (Cf. 

609,  2.) 

641.  Doubled  consonants  were  not  regularly  written 
(or  sounded)  in  the  time  of  Plautus,  and  thus  words  like 
ille,  immo,  quippe,  are  used  by  him  with  the  first  syllable 
short. 

a.  Ennius  first  wrote  doubled  consonants  regularly  ;  and  his 
contemporary  Terence  rarely  neglects  their  effect  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  a  syllable ;  when  he  does  so,  it  is  almost  always  at  the 
beginning  of  an  iambic  verse. 

h.  Before  the  combination,  mute  and  liquid,  short  vowels 
always  retain  their  natural  (short)  quantity  in  Plautus  and 
Terence  ;  as,  sf^rl,  inp^tro. 

♦  Whether  in  the  same  word  or  not.  In  words  of  more  than  two  sylla- 
bles, however,  only  the  first  two  syUables  seem  to  suffer  this  shortening. 


402 


VERSIFICATION. 


Satumian  Verse. 
Note.  The  earliest  Latin  verse  was  not,  like  the  verses 
a  ready  treated,  an  inntation  of  the  Greek,  but  a  product  of 
Italian  soil.  It  is  called  Saturnian  verse.  Scholars  are  not 
agreed  as  to  certain  important  points  in  its  character,  but  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  accent  (ictus)  has  much  more  promi- 
nence  as  compared  with  quantity  than  in  the  Greek  metres. 

642.  Saturnian  verse  consists  of  two  half  verses  with 
a  break  between  them,  on  the  following  scheme  (iambic 
dimeter  catalectic  +  trochaic  tripody)  :  — 


V^         ^1        ^1        v^ll    1^        1^        1 


Thus:  — 


Dabunt  I  malum  |  Metel|ll  ||  Naevi|o  po|etae. 
Cornellius  |  LucTlus  ||  ScTpijo  Bar]batus 
Gnaevod  \  patre  |  progna|tus  \\  fortis  |  vir  sapi|ensque 
Quoius  I  forma  |  virtu|tei  ||  parisu|ma|fuit. 
Cf.  in  English  :  — 

The  king  was  in  the  parlor,  counting  out  his  money; 
The  queen  was  in  the  kitchen,  eating  bread  and  honey. 

a.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  consider  the  last  syUable  of  each  half 
verse  an  accented  one.*     Thus  : 


v-f 


^  -^  6\\^^  J-^  11 


Note  1.  The  Satumian  is  found  chiefly  in  inscriptions.  Hidtus  is 
allowed  between  the  two  halves  of  the  verse.  The  unaccented  parts 
(arses)  of  the  verse  consist  of  a  long  syllable  or  a  short  syllable  or  two 
short  syllables.  Sometimes  an  arsis  disappears,  as  in  the  last  foot  but  one 
in  the  last  hne  above.  The  accented  parts  (theses)  must  be  either  one  long 
syllable  or  two  short  syllables.     Alliteration  is  common. 

Note  2.     Another  view  now  frequently  held  is  that  of  O.  Keller,  that 
quantity  "  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  metre,  and  that  the  accent  coin- 


(( 


*oo^^  ^estphal,  Gr.  Metrik,  ii.,   42,  and  R.   Klutz,   Jahresber.  1883, 
p.  oJ,o. 


8ATURNIAN   VEE8E.  —  LOGAOEDIC   VERSE. 


403 


cide»  always  with  the  word-accent.     Each  half  verae  always  begins  then 

with  an  accent.*    Thus  : 

D&bont  milam  Met^lli  11  Na^vio  po^tae. 
Between  the  second  accented  syllable  and  the  third,  two  unaccented  syl- 
Ublos  always  occur;  in  other  cases  generally  only  one  unaccented  syllable. 
Th  rare  always  three  accented  syllables  in  the  first  half  verse  general  y 
three  in  the  second ;  sometimes,  however,  only  two  m  the  second,  and  then 
Lally  an  unaccented  syllable  before  that  half  verse  (anacruses).  The 
arsU  even  of  the  last  foot  occasioially  consists  of  two  syUables. 

Logaoedic  Verse. 

643.  Logaoedic  verse  is  a  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
verse  consisting  of  dactyls  and  trochees  (chiefly  irrational), 
from  the  resemblance  to  prose  caused  by  slight  inequalities 
in  the  time  of  the  feet  (from  Xoyo,  and  do.8>i,  prose-song). 

a.  The  irrational  trochee  (or  spondee)  is  thus  represented: 
_>;  or  musically,  f   ^  ;  the  irrational  dactyl  is  called^CYCLic 

dactyl,    and   represented   thus :    -^  ^,  or  musically,  ^   f  J'  °^ 

nearly    /     i^  k* 

644.  Logaoedic  lines  consist  almost  always  of  one  dac- 
tyl and  two,  three,  or  four  trochees.  The  dactyl  occupies 
any  foot  but  the  last.f     Thus  : 

Logaoedic  Dipody 
Logaoedic  Tripody 


—\J  v^        —sj 


\J        —\J        —  Ni/ 


—  V^ 


W        —  V^ 


Logaoedic  Tetrapody 


(Adonic) 
(1st  Pherecratic) 
(2d  Pherecratic) 
(1st  Glyconic) 
(2d  Glyconic) 
(3d  Glyconic) 
-v    -w   (Lesser  Sapphic) 
.^  (Phalaecian) 

a.  These  lines  are  used,  either  as  complete  in  themselves  or 
combined  into  longer  lines,  to  make  various  forms  of  (chiefly 
atrophic)  verse,  as  in  the  following  sections. 

«  See  0.  Keller,  Der  Saturnische  Vers  als  rhyihmisch  erwiesen. 

t  One  logaoedic  tetrapody  occurs  with  two  dactyls,  ihe  lesser  Alcaic, 

thus  :     ~N-'  v./       "V  vy       —  V       —  w 


—  N./       ~U  w       —  W       —  V 

Lo'^aoedic  Pentapody  -  v./    -  ^    -u  v^ 


404 


VERSIFICATION. 


Metres  of  Horace  and  Catnlliui. 

645.  The  Asclepiadean  verse  is  used  in  five  varie- 
ties, as  foUows :  — 

(1.)  Lesser  (or  1st)  Asclepiadean  (2d  Pherecratic  +  1st 
Pherecratic).     [Not  strophic]     Thus  :  — 


r 


1^ 


w  A 


ormusically:   f  J'l  J*  J  J  |  f    |  J' J  f  |  f   I  \^\     ^\ 

Maece|nas  ata|vis  ||  edite  |  regijbus.     (Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  1.) 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  1  ;  iii.,  30;  iv.,  8. 

Note.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  last  foot  of  the  first  half  of  the  line 
consists  of  one  long  syllable  protracted  into  the  time  of  three  short  ones 
(cf.  613,  a),  and  that  the  last  foot  in  the  line  contains  a  rest.  Similar 
phenomena  of  course  occur  in  the  other  logaoedic  verses  given  below. 

(2.)  Second  Asclepiade.in  (three  lesser  Asclepiadean  lines 
foUowed  by  a  second  Glyconic).     [Strophic]     Thus  :  — 


\j     —  \j 


V         —  \J 


CA 


^> 


-v/  w      —  w      ^  A 


~  >      ~\j  ^      —  w/      w  A 


The  last  verse  is  musically  \T  f  *|  J'  5  p 


!        1/ 


P     1 


I 


Scribe  I  ris  Vari|o  ||  fortis  et  |  hosti|um 
Victor,  I  Maeoni|i  ||  carminis  |  ali|ti, 
Quam  rem  |  cumque  fe|rdx  ||  navibus  |  aut  e|ques 
Miles  I  te  duce  |  gesse|rit. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  G,  15,  24,  33;  ii.,  12;  iii.,  10,  16;  iv.,  5,  12. 
(3.)  Third  Asclepiadean  (second  Glyconic  alternating  with 
a  lesser  Asclepiadean).     [Strophic]     Thus  :  — 


1> 


1> 


^A 


f  r 


si/A 


Sic  te  I  diva  po|tens  Cy|prT 
Sic  fra|tre8  Hele|nae,  ||  lucida  |  side[ra, 

Vento|rumque  re  I  gat  pa|ter 
Obstric|tIs  ali|is  ||  praeter  I|apy|ga. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  3,  13,  19,  36 ;  iii.,  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28;  iv.,  1,  3. 


METRES   OF   HORACE   AND  CATULLUS. 


405 


(4.)  Fourth  Asclepiadean  (first  two  lines  lesser  Asclepi- 
adean, third  line  2d  Pherecratic,  fourth  line  2d  Glyconic). 
[Strophic]     Thus :  — 

i>    Aj^    \l\\Aj^    -^w    wA 

J.  >      —V  w      -^  ^      w  A 
The  last  two  lines  are,  musically : 

Quis  muljta  graci|lis  ||  te  puer  |  in  rolsa 
Perfillsus  liqui|dis  ||  urget  o|dori|bus 
Grato,  |Pyrrha,  sub  |  anjtro  ? 
Cui  fla'jvam  reli|gas  colmam. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  5,  14,  21,  23 ;  iii.,  7,  13 ;  iv.,  13. 
(5.)  Greater  (or  5th)  Asclepiadean  (2d  Pherecratic  + 
Adonic  +  Ist  Pherecratic).     [Not  strophic]     Thus  :  — 


•f-  >  — U    N./ 


\L  \\  A^^      -^  w      w  A 


Tu  ne  I  quaesielris,  |  scire  ne|fa3,  ||  quem  mihi,  |  quern  ti;bi. 
Horace,  Odes,  i,  11,  18;  iv.,  10  ;  CatuUus,  30.  _     _ 

646.  The  Sapphic  strophe  is  used  in  two  varieties,  as 

follows  :  — 

(1.)  Lesser  Sapphic  (first  three  lines  lesser  Sapphic,  fourth 

line  Adonic).     Thus  :  — 


1^     1> 

f 


Aj^       -^v       -^^ 

1^ 


or    n\'''\^-l'\'^\'' 


:-^c 


Note.     There  ia  usually  a  caesura  after  the  long  syllable  of  tlie  dactyl. 


406 


VERSIFICATION. 


lam  8a|tis  ter|ri8  ||  nivis  |  atque  |  dirae 
Grandi|nis  mi | sit  ||  pater  |  et  ru|bente 
Dexte|ra  sa|cras  ||  iacU|latus  |  arces 
TerruitI  urbem. 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

All  the  night  sleep  came  not  upon  my  eyelids, 
Shed  not  dew,  nor  shook  nor  unclosed  a  feather, 
Yet  with  lips  shut  close  and  with  eyes  of  iron 
Stood  and  beheld  me. 

(Swinburne's  Sapphics.) 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38;  ii,  2,  4,  6,8,  10,  10; 
m.,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27 ;  iv.,  2,  6,  11 ;  and  the  Carm.  Saec.;  Catullus. 
11,  51. 

Note  1.  Catullus,  in  the  only  two  poems  which  he  wrote  in  the  Sapphic 
metre,  differs  from  Horace  in  occasionally  using  a  rea/  trochee  in  the  second 
foot,  and  in  sometimes  neglecting  the  caesura,  or  putting  it  between  the 
short  syllables  of  the  dactyl. 

Note  2.  The  last  two  lines  are  occasionally  run  together  by  both  Horace 
and  Catullus  ;  as  :  — 

Labiltur  rlpa  II  love  |  non  prolbante^u- 

xorius  1  amnis.  (Hor.,  Orf.,  i.,  2,  lines  19-20.) 

Note  3.  The  Sapphic  line  is  sometimes  divided  as  follows :  — 


1^      1> 


or 


rr 


1/    K  l^ 


rr 


It       ^  A 


I 


(2.)  Greater  Sapphic  (1st  Pherecratic  [Aiistophanic]  alter- 
nating with  a  greater  Sappliic  line  (i.  6.,  3d  Glyconic  +  1st 
Pherecratic).     Thus :  — 


l^       w  A 


or 


^•^Pirnrir-^i 


Lydia  |  die  per  |  omjnes 

Te  de|os  o|ro  Sybajrin  ||  cur  prope|re8  a|man[do. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.  8. 


METRES   OF   HORACE   AND   CATULLUS. 


407 


647.  The  Alcaic  strophe  *  consists  of  two  greater  Al- 
caic lines  (i.  e.,  lesser  Sapphic  lines,  catalectic  with  ana- 
crusis),  a  trochaic  dimeter  with  anacrusis,  and  a  lesser 
Alcaic.     Thus ;  — 


9 


O  : 


1^       ^>       ^^       ^> 


or 


nrnrrir^^irnr'' 


1  i^ 


Viides  ut  1  alta  I  stet  nive  |  candijdum 
Soiracte,  |  nee  iam  '  sustinejant  o|nus 
Siljvae  la|boran|tes,  ge|luque 
Fluraina  |  constite  ]  rint  a|cuto. 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

O  mighty-mouth'd  inventor  of  harmonies, 
O  skill'd  to  sing  of  Time  or  Eternity, 
God-gifted  organ-voice  of  England, 
Milton,  a  name  to  resound  for  ages. 

(Tennyson's  Ode  to  Milton,) 

Horace,  Odes,  i.,  9,  16, 17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  ii.,  1, 3,  5,  7  9, 11, 
13, 14, 15, 17, 19,  20 ;  iii.,  1,  2, 3,  4,  5,  6, 17, 21,  23,  26,  29  ;  iv.,  4, 9, 14, 15. 

648.  The  Glyconic-pherecratic  verse  is  used  m  two 
forms  by  Catullus,  as  follows :  — 

(1.)  A  Btrophic  form   (consisting  of  three,  or  four,  2d  Gly- 
conic verses  and  one  2d  Pherecratic).     Thus : 

^w     Ayw     -^^     -A 

J.  ^       —\j  \u       -^  \^       —  A 
/  '  '  A 

1^      -kj^      »^      -A 

*  Also  called  the  Horatian  stanza,  because  Horace  uses  it  more  than 
any  of  the  other  logaoedic  verse*. 


408 


VERSIFICATION. 


Dia|nae  sumus  |  in  fijde 
Pueljlae^et  pue|ri3inte|gri : 
Diajnam  pue|ri3inte|gri 
Pueljlaeque  cajna|mii8. 

Nil  po|test  sine  |  te  Ve|nu8, 
Fama  I  quod  bona  |  compro|bet, 
Commo|dI  capejreTat  po|test 
Te  vojlente.     Quis  |  huic  de|o 
Compajrarier  ]  au|sit? 


(CatulL,  34.) 


(Catull.,  61.) 


Catullus,  34,  61. 

Note.  The  first  foot  is  usually  a  trochee,  but  sometimes  a  spondee,  or 
even  (as  in  the  first  strophe  above)  an  iambus.  Cf.  Greek  usage.  One 
verse  (61,  25)  has  a  spondee  instead  of  the  dactyl. 

(2.)  A  form  not  strophic,  called  the  Priapean  verse,  in 
which  the  Glyconic  and  Pherecratic  make  together  a  single 
line.     Thus  :  — 


-^w    -kjs^    1^    ^W-^^    A 


\L       r;A 


O  Co  I  Ionia,  |  quae  cujpis  ||  ponte  |  liidere  |  Ion  |  go. 
Catullus,  17. 

649.  The  Phalaecian  verse  (hendecasyllahle')  is  a 
logaoedic  pentapody  with  dactyl  in  the  second  place. 
Thus  :  — 

1>       A.V.        -^w       -^^       -^w 

Cui  do  I  no  lepijdum  no|vum  lijbellum. 

Cf.  in  English  : 

Look,  I  come  to  the  test,  a  tiny  poem 
All  composed  in  a  metre  of  Catullus. 

(Tennyson's  Hendecasyllahics.) 

Catullus,  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  7,  9,  10,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  21,  23,  24,  26,  27,  28, 
32,  33,  35,  36,  38,  40,  41,  42,  43,  45,  46,  47,  48,49,  50,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57, 
68,  58b. 

Note.     The  first  foot  is  occasionally  a  real  trochee,  or  even  an  iambus. 


METRES   OF   HORACE  AND   CATULLUS. 


409 


Other  kinds  of  verse  (not  logaoedic)  are  used  by  Horace  or 
Catullus  as  follows  :  — 

Strophic  Metres. 

650.  The  Hipponactean  strophe  consists  of  a  trochaic 
dimeter  catalectic  alternating  with  an  iambic  trimeter 
catalectic.     Thus  :  — 


^1    ^-   ^U  - 


-    ^1    )d.h 


Non  e bur  nelque^aureum 
Mea  ;  reni  detjlinldomo  1  laculnar. 

Horace,  Odes,  ii.,  18.  j  t 

651.  The  Pythiambic  strophe  consists  of  a  dactylic 
hexameter  alternating  with  an  iambic  dimeter  acatalectic. 
Thus :  — 

Mollis  in|ertia  |  cur  ||  t5n|tam  dif|fuderit  |  Imls 
Oblilvio'nem  senlsibus. 
Horace,  Ep.,  14,  15. 

652.  The  2d  Pythiambic  strophe  consists  of  a  dac- 
tylic hexameter  alternating  with  a  pure  iambic  trimeter 
(acatalectic).     Thus  :  — 

^1       ^_       ^\\1       v.-       w-^       WW 

Altera  |  iam  teri|tur  ||  belllis  cilvilibus  \  aetas, 
Suls  I  et  i|psa  1|  Rolma  vi'iribus  |  ruit. 
Horace,  Ep.,  16.  r  •       I.'      f  * 

653.  The    Iambic   strophe   consists  of  an  iambic  tri- 
meter alternating  with  an  iambic  dimeter.     Thus  :  — 


^1       w-       wH       V 


s?-^ 


Ibis  I  LiburlnTs  ||  injter  al|ta  nalvium, 
Ami|ce,  prolpugnajcula. 
Horace,  f:;).,  1,  2.  .'^.4.  5,  6.  7,8,9,  10. 


410 


VERSIFICATION. 


654.  The  Archilochian  strophe  occurs  in  four  forms, 
as  follows :  — 

(1.)  1st  Archilochiax  (see  617). 
Horace,  Odes,  iv.,  7. 

(2.)  2d  Akchilochiax  (consisting  of  a  dactylic  hexameter 
alternating  with  a  so-called  iambehc  line  [i.  e.,  an  iambic  dime- 
ter -|-  a  dactyhc  penthemimeris]).     Thus  :  — 


—   W        —  W        —        \^\J        —  \Jv 


w        -^  v^ 


—  f  -  r 


—  w  ^        —  \J  \J        w 


stas  II  caejlum  con|traxit,  et  |  imbres 
ducunt  I  lovem  ;  ||  nunc  mare,  |  nunc  silu|ae. 


Horrida  |  tempe 
Nivesjque  de 

Horace,  Ep.,  13. 

(3.)  3d  Archilochian  (consisting  of  an  iambic  trimeter  and 
a  so-called  elegiamblo  line  [i.  e.,  a  dactylic  penthemimeris -(- Jin 
iambic  dimeter]).     Thus  :  — 


w  —        s^  — 


f  1        - 


r  f  f 

—  \j\j     —  \j  \^     — 


f  r         — 


Petti,  I  nihil  |  me  ||  sicjut  an|tea  |  iuvat 
Scrlbere|  versicu|los  ||  am5|re  ])er|cursum  j  gravl. 
Horace,  -E]p.,  11. 

(4.)  4th  Archilochian  (consisting  of  a  greater  Archilo- 
chian \i.  6.,  a  dactylic  tetrameter  -j-  a  trochaic  tripody]  alter- 
nating with  an  iambic  trimeter  catalectic).     Thus  :  — 


■L  wu»      1.  vjv       —       \j\j      —  \J\j 


—  r 
\j  — 


'         1        1  — 


w  — 


w "  ^ 


Solvitur  I  acris  hi; ems  ||  grajta  vice  ||  veris  |  et  FajvonT, 
Trahunt|que  sicjcas  ||  majchinae  |  carl|nas. 
Horace,  Odes^  i.,  4. 

Qbb.  Alcmanian  strophe.     (See  616.) 

Horace,  Odes,  i.,  7,  28;  JE/>.,  12. 

^bQ.  Lesser  Ionic  strophe  \Ionic  a  mindre\,     (See 
633.) 

Horace,  Odes^  ill.,  12. 


METRES   OF   HORACE   AND   CATULLUS. 


411 


Metres  Not  Stroptiic. 
657.  The  Galliambic  metre  is  a  lesser  Ionic  tetra- 
meter, employed  by  Catullus  with  various  irregularities. 
The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 


W\./  -N-/-W       '--IIVV^ 


V  w  V^  ^ 


Super  alta  |  vectus  Attis  ||  celeri  ra|te  maria. 

Catullus,  63, 

Note  1.  Tlie  first  two  Ionic  feet  always  suffer  anaclasis,  so  called,  t.  «  , 
two  trochees  are  substituted  for  the  last  two  (long)  syllables  of  the  first  and 
the  first  two  (short)  of  the  second.  Thus,  instead  of^^  2_|^v  -i- 
is  read  1      I  -  w      -  -•     -^^  irregular  anaclasis  takes  place  in  the 

second  two  Ionic  feet  (see  the  scheme). 

Note  2.  For  the  (apparent)  pyrrhic  thus  resulting  at  the  beginning  of 
each  half  of  the  verse  may  be  substituted  a  spondee  or  a  proceleusmatic  ; 
for  the  first  pyrrhic,  also  a  tribrach. 

Note  3.  The  variation  of  the  ictus  from  the  ordinary  ictus  of  the  lesser 
Ionic  foot  should  be  observed,  as  given  in  the  scheme  above. 

658.  The  following  measures,  already  treated,  are  also 

used :  — 

(1.)  Pure  IAMBIC  TKiMETER.     (See  627.) 
Horace,  Ep.,  17 ;  Catullus,  4,  29,  52.* 

(2.)  Choliambic.     (See  628.) 
Catullus,  8,  22,  31,  37,  39,  44,  59,  60. 

(3.)  Iambic  septenarius.     (See  626.) 
Catullus,  25. 

(4.)  Dactylic  hexameter.     (See  614.) 

Horace,  Satires  and  Epistles ;  Catullus,  62,  64. 
(5.)  P^LEGiAC.     (See  615.) 

Catullus,  65,  m,  67,  68,  and  60-116. 

Note.  The  spondee  may  be  used  instead  of  an  iambus  in  the  metres 
treated  in  650-658  only  in  the  first  and  third  feet,  as  a  rule.  In  the 
iambic  strophe,  the  3d  Archilochian,  and  the  choliambic,  resolution  is  occa- 
sionallv  employed.  The  trochaic  lines  or  part  lines  admit  no  substitutions 
or  resolutions.  The  iambic  alternate  line  in  the  second  Pythiambic  strophe 
is  also  A  pure  line  (i.  «.,  has  only  the  iambus). 

♦  Tliis  quatrain,  however,  has  spondees  in  the  first  and  third  feet  of  two 
of  the  lines. 


APPEITDIX. 


GRAMMATICAL   FIGURES. 

Note.  Most  of  the  technical  terms  used  to  name  the  so-called  figures 
OF  SPEECH  have  now  gone  out  of  use,*  but  the  following  are  still  met 
with  often  enough  to  make  it  worth  wliile  to  define  them  briefly. 

659.  (1.)  Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  words  or  sylla- 
bles beginning  with  the  same  letter  (or  sound)  ;  as  :  — 

O  Tlte,  tnte,  Tatlj  tibt  tanta^  tijranne,  tuliatl  (Ennius  apuJ 
Cornif.,  Hhet.^  4,  18). 

(2.)  Amphibolia  is  the  use  of  equivocal  words  or  construc- 
tions ;  as  :  — 

G(illus  =  '''Sk  Gaul"  or  "a  cock;"  aid  te,  Aeacidd,  R5- 
manos  vuirere  posse,  I  say  that  you,  O  son  of  Aeacus,  the 
Romans  can  conquer  (Enn.,  apud  Cic,  Dir.,  ii.,  56,  116). 

(3.)  Anacoluthon  is  a  disagreement  in  construction  between 
the  latter  and  the  earlier  ])art  of  a  sentence  ;  as  :  — 

Nam  nos  omnes,  quibus  est  allcunde  aliquis  ohiectus  labos, 
omne  quod  est  interea  tempus.  j)rius'j[uam  id  resrlturn  est, 
lucr5  est,  for  [to]  all  of  us  upon  whom  some  hardship  is 
hurled  from  some  quarter,  the  intervening  time  before  we  dis- 
cover it  is  so  much  gain  (Ter.). 

The  anacoluthon  could  be  avoided  by  using  either  nos  omnes 
.  .  .  lucro  habemus,  or  ndbis  omnibus  .  .  .  lucro  est. 

(4.)  Anaphora  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  of  correspond- 
ing words,  in  the  same  order  in  successive  clauses  or  sentences  ; 
as :  — 

Nihilne  te  noctumum  praesidium  paldtl,  nihil  urbis  vigi- 
liaey  nihil  timor  populi  .  .  .  nwverunt  ?  have  the  guarding  of 

*  A  few  have  become  so  common  as  applied  to  English  also  that  they 
need  no  special  mention. 


GRAMMATICAL   FIGURES. 


413 


the  Palatine  by  night,  the  patrol  of  the  city,  the  fear  of  the 
people,  produced  no  effect  upon  you  ?  (Cic,  in  Cat.,  i.)     Cf . 

also  698,  1. 

(5.)  Antithesis  is  the  placing  of  different  words  or  senti- 
ments in  contrast  ;  as  :  — 

•  Caesar  beneficiis  dc  munificentia  vmgnus  habebatur ; 
integritate  vitae  Cato,  Caesar  was  thought  great  for  his 
favoi-s  and  generosity,  Cato  for  the  purity  of  his  life  (SaU.,  Cat., 

54,  2).     Cf.  also  598. 

(6.)  Apocope  is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  at  the 
end  of  a  word  ;  as,  men'  for  7nene.     Cf.  also  63,  ii. 

(7.)  Apostrophe  is  the  turning  off  from  the  course  of  the  suV 

ject,  to  address  some  absent  person  or  personified  thing  ;  as  :  — 

Quid  non  mortdlia  pectora  cogis.  auri  sacra  fames  ?  what 

dost  thou  not  drive  the  heart  of  man  to  do,  accursed  hunger  for 

gold?  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iii.,  56). 

(8.)  Asyndeton  is  the  omission  of  the  connective  between 
words  or  sentences  ;  as  :  — 

Abiit,  excessit,  evasit,  erupit  (Cic,  Cat.,  ii.,  t,  l). 
(9.)  Barbarism  is  the  use  of  a  foreign  word,  or  a  violation 
of  spelling  or  the  rules  of  word-formation  or  metre  m  the  use 
of  a  word  ;  as,  rigorosus  for  rigidus. 

(10.)  Chiasmits  is  the  placing  of  corresponding  words  m  op- 
posite  orders  in  successive  clauses  or  sentences^  See  the  exam- 
ple under  Antithesis  above,  and  cf.  also  698,  2. 

(11.)  Crasis  is  the  contraction  of  two  vowels  mto  one  ;  as, 
coqd  iov  co^go  ;  niliov  nihil.  . 

(12.)  Ellipsis  is  the  omisBion  of  a  word  or  words  in  a  sen- 
tence ;  as,  vM  mMa?  (sc.  dicam)  ;  ad  Btanae  (.caedem). 
(13.)  Epakalepsis  is  a  return  to  the  subject  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  a  word  or  sentence  after  interrupting  words  or  clauses. 

(See  Verg.,  Georg.,  ii.,  lines  4-7.)  .-,      ,     , 

(14.)  Hendiadys  is  the  expression  of  an  idea  by  two  con- 
nected nouns  instead  of  a  noun  modified  by  an  adjective  or  a 

Pateris  ilhanms  et  auro  (for  pateris  aureis).  we  pour  a 
libation  from  golden  bowls  (Verg..  Geor.,  n.,  192). 


414 


APPENDIX. 


(15.)  Hypallage  is  an  interchange  of  constructions;  as  :  — 
InnovsLfert  animus  matatas  dlcere  f5rmas  corpora  (for 
corpora  mutata  in  novas  formas),  my  mind  leads  me  to  tell 
of  bodies  changed  into  new  shapes  (Ovid,  31.,  i.,  1). 

(16.)  Hyperbatox  is  the  displacement  of  a  word  from  its 
connection  in  a  clause  or  sentence  ;  as  :  — 

Ut  rdla  intermissio  fiat  offici  (instead  of  ut  Tdla  inter  mis- 
sio  oflaci  fiat)  (Cic,  Am.,  2,  8). 

(17.)  Hyperbole  is  the  exaggeration  or  diminishing  a  thing 
beyond  the  truth  ;  as  :  — 

Ipse  arduus  altaque  pulsat  sidera,  towering  he  stands  and 
strikes  the  stars  on  high  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iii.,  619). 

(18.)  Hysterox  proterox  is  a  reversal  of  the  natural  order 
of  the  sense  ;  as  :  — 

Moriamur  et  in  media  arma  rudmus,  let  us  die  and  rush 
into  the  midst  of  the  battle  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  353). 

(19.)  LITOTES  is  a  mode  of  assertion  by  denying  the  con- 
trary ;  as,  n5n  laudo  =  I  blame ;  nd?L  innoxia  verba  =  harmful 
words. 

(20.)  Metathesis  is  the  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word ; 
as,  cerjid  beside  cretus,     Cf.  also  72. 

(21.)  Metoxymy  is  the  substitution  of  the  name  of  one  thing 
for  another  to  which  it  has  a  certain  relation,  as  the  cause  for 
the  effect,  the  sign  for  the  thing  signified,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Fruges  Cererem  appellamus,  vinum  autem  Liberum,  we 
call  the  crops  Ceres  and  wine  Bacchus  (Cic,  N,  i).,  ii.,  23,  60) ; 
cedant  arma  togae,  let  arms  yield  to  the  toga  \_i.  e.,  war  to 
peace]  (Cic,  Poet,  frag.), 

(22.)   Oxymorox  is  the  union  of  words  of  contrary  meanings 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  seeming  contradiction ;  as :  — 
Concordia  discors  ;  cum  tacent,  clamant. 

(23.)  Paroxomasia  is  a  play  upon  the  similarity  of  sound 
between  words  ;  as  :  — 

Amor  et  melle  et  felle  est  fecund issimus  (Plaut.,  Cist,,  i.,  1, 
70)  ;  c'wem  bonarum  artium,  bonarum  partiima  (Cic). 


grammatical  figures. 


415 


(24.)  Periphrasis  is  another  name  for  circumlocution ;  as, 
tenerl   fetus    ovium,   tender   offspring    of    sheep    (for   dgm, 

lambs). 

(25.)  Pleoxasm  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are  necessary 

to  convey  the  meaning  ;  as  :  — 

Stc  ore  locuta  est  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  614). 

(26.)  Prolepsis  is  the  anticipation  of  an  idea  before  it  ap- 
pears ;  as :  — 

Fugaces  terrere  equos,  to  frighten  the  horses  so  as  to  make 
them  flee  (cf.  Hor.,  Od,,  ii.,  1,  19). 

(27.)    Prosopop(EIA   is   another   name   for   personification; 

as  :  — 

Virtus  intdmindtu  fulget  hondribics,  true  merit  shines  with 

unsullied  honors  (Hor.,  Od.,  iii.,  2,  17). 

(28.)  Solecism  is  a  violation  of  the  rules  of  syntax ;  as,  — 
Venus  pulcher  (for  pulchra)  ;  vos  (for  vobis)  invidemus, 

(29.)  Syxcope  is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  m  the 
middle  of  a  word  ;  as,  asprls  for  asjierls.     Cf.  also  63,  i. 

(30.)  Syxecdoche  is  the  use  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  the 
genus  for  the  species,  the  singular  for  the  plural,  the  material 
for  the  thing  made,  or  the  opposites  of  these  ;  as,  tectum  for 
domus  :  fontem  for  aquam. 

(31.)  Tautology  is  the   repetition  of  an  idea  in  different 

words  ;  as  :  — 

lam  v-os  aciem  et  proelia  ef  hostem  poscitU,  now  you  de- 
mand the  battle  line,  the  fight,  the  foe  (Sil.)- 

(32.)  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  word  ;  as :  — 

Septem  suhle>-ta  trionl  ffens.  a  people  dwelling  in  the  far 
north  (Verg..  Ge<ir.,  iii.,  381);  quae  me  cumque  vacant  ter- 
roe,  whatever  lands  call  me  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  610). 

(33.)  Zeugma  is  the  use  of  a  word  in  two  or  more  expres- 
sions,  when  it  is  strictly  applicable  to  only  one  of  them ;  as  :  - 

Pacem  an  helium  gerens.  waging  peace  or  war?  (g^rere  not 
being  a  word  which  strictly  applies  to  pax)  :  sempeme  ^n  sanr 
guine,  f erro,  fuga.  uersabimur  ? 


416 


APPENDIX. 


MODES  OF  RECKONING. 


Time. 

660.  (1.)  The  Roman  day  was  reckoned  from  sunrise  to  sun- 
set, and  this  time  was  always  divided  into  twelve  hours  {horae). 
The  night,  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  was  also  divided  into 
twelve  hours.  Therefore  the  hours  were  not  of  a  fixed  length, 
as  with  us,  but  varied  with  the  season  of  the  year.  At  the  equi- 
noxes they  had,  like  our  hours,  a  uniform  length  of  sixty  minutes 
each.  Between  the  vernal  and  the  autumnal  equinox  the  hours 
of  daylight  were  more  than  sixty  minutes  long  ;  between  the 
autumnal  and  the  vernal  equinox,  less  than  sixty  minutes. 

Note  1.  In  camp,  the  nig"ht  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  (vigtUat) 
of  three  (Roman)  hours  each,  the  second  ending  at  midnight  and  the  fourth 
at  sumise. 

(2.)  In  early  times  the  Roman  year  began  with  March,  and 
the  names  Quinct'dis  (July)ySext7lls  (August),  September,  etc., 
indicated  the  distance  of  these  months  from  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  The  number  of  days  in  the  year  was  355,  divided  be- 
tween the  months  as  follows  :  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
31  each  ;  February,  28  ;  and  the  others,  29  each.  Every  other 
year  the  Pontifices  might  put  in  an  extra  month  after  the  23d 
of  February. 

(3.)  In  46  B.  c.  Julius  Caesar  reformed  the  calendar,  putting 
it  upon  its  present  basis.*  In  leap-year,  February  24th  was 
counted  twice.  Hence  the  name  Bissextile  for  lea|)-year  (Feb- 
ruary 24th  being  the  sixth  day  before  the  first  of  ]March).  The 
names  Qulnctllls  and  Sextllis  were  afterwards  changed  to 
Julius  and  Augustus,  in  honor  of  Caesar  and  his  grand-nephew. 

(4.)  The  Romans  counted  their  days  backwards  from  three 
fixed  points  in  each  month  :  the  Calends  f   {Kalendae),  i.  e., 

*  Except  for  the  slight  change  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1582  by  which  the  closing  year  of  a  century  (17(Xl,  1800,  1900,  etc.)  is  not 
counted  as  leap-year,  unless  its  number  is  divisible  by  400  (1000,  2000,  etc.). 

t  So  called  because  the  priests  then  announced  the  new  moon.  (Cf.  ca- 
Idre.) 


MODES   OF   RECKONING:   TIME. 


417 


the  first  of  the  month ;  the  Ides  *  (Tdus\  i.  e.,  the  13th  of  most 
months,  but  the  15th  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October ;  and  the 
Nones  t  {Nonae),  L  e.,  the  5th,  except  in  March,  May,  July  and 
October,  when  it  is  the  7th.     Therefore  : 

a.  To  reduce  a  Latin  date  to  English  terms :  — 
i.  If  reckoned  from  the  Calends,  add  two  to  the  number  of 
days  in  the  preceding  month,  and  subtract  the  given  date. 

ii.  Otherwise,  add  one  to  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall,  and  subtract  the  given  date. 
Thus :  — 

XV  Kal.  Quinct.  =  30  +  2  —  15  =  17th  of  June. 
IV  Non.  Ian.        ==    ^  -f  1  —    4  =  2d  of  January. 
VlTdusMaifis     :=15  +  1—   6=  10th  of  May. 
b.  To  reduce  an  English  date  to  Latin  terms :  — 
i.  If  later  than  the  Ides  of  a  given  month,  add  two  to  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  subtract  the  date. 

ii.  Otherwise,  add  one  to  the  day  on  which  the  Ides  or  Nones 
fall  in  the  given  month,  and  subtract  the  date. 

Thus :  — 

April  3d  =   5  + 1  —    3  =  III  Ndn.  April. 
Dec.  10th  =^  13  +  1  -  10  =  IV  Id.  Dec. 

Aug.  22d  =  31  4-  2  —  22  =  XI  Kal.  Sept. 

Note  1.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  is  called  prxdie 
Kalendds,  Nonds,  or  Idis.  The  Romans  in  reckoning  counted  both  the 
starting-point  and  the  day  arrived  at;  therefore  they  had  no  die  secundo 
Kalendfis,  etc.,  but  the  second  day  before  the  Calends  was  die  tertw  hal., 
and  similarly  with  regard  to  the  Nones  and  Ides. 

Note  2.  In  leap-vear  the  24th  of  February  was  called  dies  bisextus  Jis 
the  year  was  called' annus  bisertus.     Sometimes  both  the  24th  and  2;)th 

were  called  VI  Kal.  Mart.  .  ^x.      t 

Note  3.  Before  the  year  46  B.  C.  the  number  of  days  in  the  months  of 
the  old  year  should,  strictly,  be  taken  in  transferring  dates,  not  the  number 
of  days  in  our  months ;  and'that  makes  the  problem  much  more  complicated. 
(5.)  The  Romans  indicated  the  year  officially  by  the  names 
of  its  consuls.  The  Roman  authors,  however,  sometimes  reck- 
oned years  from  the  founding  of  Rome  (753  b.  c.)4 

•  The  time  of  full  moon. 

t  By  Roman  reckoning,  the  ninth  day  before  the  Ides. 

t  Indicated  thus :  A.  U.  C.  (i.  e.,  anno  urbis  conditae). 


418 


APPENDIX. 


a.  To  reduce  a  year  thus  reckoned  to  English  terms  :  — 

i.  If  the  number  is  less  than  754,  subtract  it  from  754,  and 
the  result  gives  the  year  B.  c. 

ii.  If  greater  than  753,  subtract  753  from  it,  and  the  result 
is  the  corresponding  year  of  our  era. 

Thus :  — 

A.  u.  c.  684  =  754  —  684  =  70  b.  c. 
A.  u.  c.  767  =z  767  —  753  =  a.  d.  14. 

h.  To  reduce  a  date  b.  c.  or  A.  d.  to  the  equivalent  A.  u.  c. 
i.  If  the  year  is  B.  c,  subtract  the  number  from  754. 
ii.  If  the  year  is  a.  d.,  add  the  number  to  753. 
Thus  :  — 

105  B.  c.  =  754  —  105  =  A.  u.  c.  649. 

A.  D.  115  =  753  -|-  115  =  A.  u.  c.  868. 
(6.)  The  Romans  divided  the  year  into  festival  days  or  holi- 
days {dies  festl)  and  non-festival  or  working  days  {dies  pro- 
festi).     They  also  distinguished  as  dies  fasti  the  days  on  which 
it  was  lawful  to  hold  court,  calling  other  days  dies  Tiefdst'i* 

Note  1.  Besides  various  festivals  celebrated  upon  special  occasions, 
such  as  the  ludi  mdgni  (g^at  pames)  and  the  ludi  saeculdres  (centennial 
games),  the  Romans  had  several  stated  festivals  occurring  at  fixed  times  in 
the  year.     The  most  important  are  the  following :  — 

Lupercdlia,  Feb.  15;  Quirindlia,  Feb.  17;  Quinquatrus  (Festival  of 
Minerva),  March  19-23;  Ludi  Megalenses  (Megalensia),  April  4-10; 
Parilia  or  Pal'dia^  April  21;  Ludi  Flordles  (Flordlia),  April  28-May  3; 
Lidi  ApoUindres,  July  6-13 ;  Neptundlia,  July  23  ;  Consudlia,  Aug.  21 
and  Dec.  15;  Ludi  i?omam,  Sept.  4-19;  Ludi  Capitolini,  Oct.  15;  Ludi 
Plebei,  Nov.  4-17 ;   Saturnalia,  Dec.  17-23. 

The  anniversaries  of  the  defeat  at  Lake  Trasumennus  (June  23)  and  tlie 
defeat  by  the  Cimbri  in  105  b.  c.  (Oct.  6)  were  known  as  dies  dtri  (black 
days). 

Note  2.  In  the  late  empire,  when  the  division  of  the  month  into  weeks 
was  introduced  at  Rome,  the  days  were  named  as  follows  :  — 

Sunday  =  t/i^s  Solis  ;  Monday  =rfies  Lunae;  Tuesday  =  dies  Mart  is ; 
Wednesday  =  dies  Mercurii ;  Thursday  =  dies  lovis  ;  Friday  =  dies  Vene- 
ris ;  Saturday  =  dies  Sdturni.  Sunday  is  also  called  dies  dominica  (i.  e., 
the  Lord's  dav). 


*  For  a  complete  calendar  of  special  days,  see  Preller's  Romische  Mytho- 
logie,  pp.  797  S. 


ROMAN   CALENDAR. 


419 


THE   ROMAN   CALENDAR. 
661.  The  following  table  shows  the  correspondence  of  our 
calendar  with  that  of  the  Romans. 


Voys  of  our 

Mar.   Mai.      1 

Jan.  Aug. 

Apr.  Jun. 

Feb. 

viontfis. 

Jul.    Oct. 

Dec. 

Skpt.   Nov. 

1 

Kalendr<j. 

KalendiB. 

Kalendae. 

Kalendae. 

2 

VI     Nonas. 

IV     Nonas,   i 

IV     Nonas. 

IV     Nonas. 

8 

V 

III 

Ill        " 

Ill 

4 

IV 

Pridie     " 

Pridie  " 

Pridie    '' 

5 

III 

Nome. 

Nonae. 

Nonae. 

6 

Pridie    " 

VIII    Idiis. 

VIII    Idiis. 

VIII    idiis. 

7 

Nonae. 

VII 

VII 

VII 

8          ! 

VIII  Idiis. 

VI 

VI 

VI          " 

9 

VII      '' 

V 

V 

V 

10 

VI 

IV 

IV 

IV 

11 

V 

III 

III 

III 

12 

IV 

Pridie     " 

Pridie     '' 

Pridie     " 

13 

III     *' 

Idus. 

tdus. 

tdus. 

14 

Pridie  " 

XIX     Kal.* 

XVIII  Kal.* 

XVI    Kal.* 

15 

Tdiis. 

XVIII    " 

XVII      " 

XV 

16 

XVII  Kal.* 

XVII     " 

XVI       " 

XIV      " 

17 

XVI      '' 

XVI       " 

XV 

XIII      " 

18 

XV 

XV 

XIV       " 

XII 

19 

XIV      " 

XIV       " 

XIII      " 

XI 

20 

XIII     " 

XIII       " 

XII 

X           *' 

21 

XII 

XII 

XI 

IX         " 

22 

XI 

XI 

X 

VIII      " 

23 

X 

X 

IX 

VII       " 

24 

IX 

IX 

VIII       " 

VI 

25 

VIII     '' 

VIII      '* 

VII 

V           '* 

26 

VII 

VII 

VI 

IV         '' 

27 

VI 

VI 

V 

III       '* 

28 

V 

V 

IV 

Pridie    " 

29 

IV 

IV 

III 

80 

III 

III 

Pridie     " 

81 

Pridie    " 

Pridie     " 

Note.     In  leap-year  the  last  seven  days  of  February  were  reckoned 
thus:  — 


23.  VIl  Kalendds  Manias. 

24.  liisertd  *' 
2.5.  VI  ■  *' 
26.     V 

Cf.  also  660,  4,  Note  2. 


27.  IV        Kal.    Mart. 

28.  Ill 

29.  Pridie    " 


a 


*  /.  «.,  of  course,  the  Calends  of  the  foUo^-ing:  month. 


420 


APPENDIX. 


Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. 

662.  (1.)  The  Roman  system  of  reckoning  was  a  duodecimal 
one,  in  which  the  smaller  unit  {^)  was  called  uncia,  the  larger 
unit,  as.     Thus  :  — 

12  unciae  = 


Note. 


11 
10 
9 
8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 


u 
u 

« 

a 
n 


or  deunx 
"  dextans 
"  dodrans 
''  bes 
"  septunx 
"  semis 
"  quinciinx 
"  triens 
"  quadrans 
"  sextans 
"  sescuncia 


\^  or  1  as 


n 

ii 

ii 
a 

a 


I 

i 

i 
i 
i 

i 


tV 


1    uncia  = 

The  uncia  was  subdivided  as  follows :  — 


u 

u 
il 
il 
ii 
it 
ii 
il 
ii 
il 
ii 


=        ^    uncia  or  ^    aa 


i( 


t( 


t( 


(( 


(( 


(( 


"A 
"  A 


u 


(C 


Semuneia 

Binae  sextulae  «=  ♦ 

Sicllicus  *»  i 

Sextula  =  i 

Dlmidia  sextula  =  ^ 

Scripulum  =  T^ 

[Dimidium  scrtpulum]   =  -^ 

(2.)  The  a5  was  thus  the  real  unit  of  measurement,  and  the 
special  units  in  different  kinds  of  measures  and  weights  were 
treated  as  asses,  and  subdivided  into  twelfths. 


MONEY. 

=  orifjinally  about  a  pmind  of  copper. 
=z  1  sestertius  or  nummus  =  about    5  ds. 

z=z  1  quinarius 
=z  1  denarius 
=  1  (nummus)  aureus 
1000  sestertii  =  1  eestertium 


663. 

1  as 
2 J  asses 

2  sestertii 
2  quinarii 
25  denarii 


— 

ii 

10  ds. 

U 

20  f^s. 

^tm»^ 

(( 

S5. 

= 

il 

$50. 

MONEY,   WEIGHTS,    AND   MEASURES. 


421 


.     r^-     U  V  all  the  Roman  coins  were  copper :  namely,  the  as  and 

--  the  a.  -^^^^^^-^^^^^^  second  Punic  war. 

^';Z7  Z  sir  trl^  to  1,000,000  seste^es,  rnUle,  nalia.  w^  - 
Note  2.  1<  or  su  se.f  ernwrn  as  a  neuter  noun.     Thus . 

tertium   gemtive  plural),  were  usea,  c.-s/grtm  =  40,000  sesterces. 

Onadriainta  miUa  sestertium  or  quadraginta  sestertia  , 

Quadraginta  .  oOO  000  sesterces  upwards,  the  combination 

sesterces.  Thus  •  — 

Sometimes  the  numeral  adverb  was  used  alone.     Thus. 

Dmes=  1,000,000  sesterces.  A  line  over  this  in- 

Note  4.  Sesterces  were  indicated  by  the^s^^^^^^^  ^^^^_ 

dicated  thousands,  lines  on  the  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^      or  500  ses^ertm; 
US.  DCC  =  700  sestertii ;  HS.  D  =  oOO.OOU  sesieriu, 

1HS.I  DCCC  =  80,000,000  sestertii. 


664. 


WEIGHTS. 


4  scripula 
2  sextulae 
4  sicilici 
12  unciae 


1  sextula. 

1  sicilicus. 

1  uncia. 

1  libra  (as  or  pound). 


100  drachmae     -       1  mi"*' 
«n     •  „^  =       1  talentum  (Attic). 

eOmmae  ,_  n  ,b,/«,)  ^as  also  used. 

Note  2.  In  imperial  times  a  s./.(?ua  (-  i  o6o/«s)  w 


665. 
(1.) 


MEASURES. 

Measures  of  Length. 

......  :-^\  palmus  minor. 

4    digiti  —  -^1'  ,    _.    X 

=  1  cubitus. 

—  1  gradus. 

■ —  1  passus. 

zz=i  1  stadium. 

=  1  mille  (passuum)  (i^owan  mile). 


IJ  pedes 
2^  pedes 
2    gradus 
125    passus 
8    stadia 


422 


APPENDIX. 


Note  1.  The  unit  of  square  measure  is  the  iugerum  (as).  The  other 
square  measures  scarcely  require  treatment  in  a  g^ramraar  at  all. 

Note  2.  These  measures  also  were  divided  into  the  regidar  fractions  of 
the  as  as  the  equivalent  of  the  pes  or  iugerum. 

(2-) 


(3.) 


Dry  : 

Measure. 

li 

cyathi 

—  1  acetabulum. 

4 

acetabula 

—  1  hemina. 

2 

hemlnae 

—  1  sextiirius. 

16 

sextarii 

— :  1  modius  {peck) 

Liquid  Measure. 

1* 

cyathi 

—  1  acetabulum. 

2 

aeetabula 

—  1  quartarius. 

2 

quartaril 

■—^  1  hemina. 

2 

hemlnae 

—  1  sextarius. 

6 

sextarii 

:— :  1  congius. 

4 

congil 

-     1  urna. 

2 

urnae 

—  1  amj)hora. 

20 

amphorae 

: —  1  culleus. 

ROMAN   NAMES. 

SQQ,  A  free  Roman  had  usually  three  names.    Thus :  — 
(1.)  The  praexomex,  distinguishing  the  individual. 
(2.)     *'    NOMEX  "  "     gens. 

(3.)     "    COGXOMEX  "  "    familla, 

a.  Praexomixa  all  end  in  -us,  except  Kaeso.  Nomina  all 
end  in  -ius,  and  are  really  adjectives  (cf.  268).  Cognomina 
have  various  endings,  and  are  derived  generally  from  some  j)er- 
sonal  peculiarity  of  their  original  bearer  (cf.  our  nicknames). 
Thus :  — 

Decimus  Junius  Brutus.* 

Publius  Cornelius  Sclpio.* 

Quintus  Miicius  Scaevola.* 
Sometimes  only  two  names  are  found  ;  as,  Gains  Laelius. 
*  From  brutus,  heavy,  scipio,  a  staff,  scaevus,  the  left  (hand  or  side). 


ROMAN   NAMES.  —  ABBREVIATIONS. 


423 


b.  Further  cognomina  are  often  used  ;  thus,  especially,  cogno- 
mina in  -ianus  indicate  adoption  from  a  certain  gens ;  -anus 
(when  not  added  to  gentile  names)  and  -icus  indicate  military 
or  other  distinction.     Thus  :  — 

Vublius  Cornelius  Scipio  Aemilianus,  Africanus  Minor.* 
Note      The  adoptive  name  is  in  familiar  lang^uage  often  reduced  to  the 
gentile  form.     Thus,  Cicero  calls  Atticus  Pomponius  rather  than  Pompc 
nianus      In  later  Latin  only,  a  second  cGgnOmen  was  called  an  agnomen. 

c.  Daughters  were  usually  called  simply  by  their  father's  gen- 
tile name  ;  a«,  Tullla  (Cicero's  daughter).  If  two  sisters  were 
to  be  distinguished,  maior  and  minor  were  added.  A  third  or 
fourth  daughter  was  known  as  tertia  or  q^iuHa,  and  so  on. 

d.  The  Roman  praenomina  were  abbreviated  thus  :  — 


A.      =  Aulus.  L.        =  Lucius.         Q- 

App.  =  Appius.  M.       =  Marcus.       Ser. 

C.       =Gaius.  M'       =Manilius.     Sex. 

Cn.     =  Gnaeus.  Mam.  =  Mamercus.  Sp. 

I).      —  Decimus.  N.       =  Numerius.   T. 


z=z  Quintus. 
=  Servius. 
=  Sextus. 
=  Spurius. 
=  Titus. 


K.      =  Kaeso.        P.        =  Publius.       Ti.  or  Tib.  =  Tiberius. 


667. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.         =  absolvo,  antlquo. 

a.  d.      =  ante  diem. 

A.  u.  c.  =  anno     urbis     condi- 

tae. 
C.  =  condemno. 

COS.        =  consul, 
coss.      =  consults. 

I).  z=:  divus. 

d.  d.      ^  dono  dedit. 

d.  d.  d.  ==  dat,  dicat,  dedicat. 

des.       =  designatus. 

D.  M.   =  di  manes. 


Eq.  Rom.  =  eques  Romanus. 

F.  or  f .       =  f  ilius. 

Ictus.         =  iiirisconsultus. 

Id.  =  Idus. 

imp.  =  imperator. 

J.  O.  M.    =  lovi  optumo  max- 

umo. 
K.  or  Kal.  {or  Cal.)  =  Kalen- 

dae. 
N.  or  n.  =  nepos. 
Non.        =  Nonae. 
p.  C.       =  patres  conscript!. 


.  The  youns«r  Africanus  was  a.lopted  by  P.  Cornelias  Scipio  (the  son 
of  Africanus  Major)  from  the  Aemilian  gens. 


424 


APPENDIX. 


pi.  1=  plebis. 

pout.   max.  =  pontifex   maxi- 

mus. 
pop.    =z  populus. 
F.  R.  =z  populus  Romanus. 
pr.      =  praetor, 
proc.  =  prijcoiisul. 
Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  ^=  quod  bonum 

fellx  faustumque  sit. 
Quir.  =  Quirltes. 
resp.  =  res  publica. 
S.  =  salutem,  sacrum,  Senatus. 


S.  D.     =  salutem  dloit. 

S.  O.F.=  salutem  dicit   pluri- 

mam. 
S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  Senatus     popu- 

liisque  Romanus. 
8.  T.  E.  Q.  V.  B.  E.  =  si  til.i 

est  quod  vis  bene  est. 
S.  V.  B.  E.  E.  V.  =  si  vales 

bene  est,  ego  valeo. 
Sc.  =:  senatus  consultum. 

tr.  =  tribunus. 

U.  (u.  r.)  =:  uti  rogas. 


668.      PRINCIPAL   LATIN   WRITERS. 

Note  1.  The  writers  from  the  time  of  Lucretius  to  the  time  of  Sueto- 
nius are  called  the  Classical  writers.  In  a  more  restricted  sense  this 
term  is  limited  to  the  period  beginning  with  Cicero  and  Caesar  and  ending 
with  Tacitus.  The  Classical  period  is  sometimes  divided  into  the  Golden 
Age  and  the  Silver  Age,  the  historian  Livy  countinjj  as  the  first  prose 
writer  of  the  latter  and  the  Augustan  poets  being  reckoned  in  the  former. 
Among  the  m  riters  later  than  Suetonius  a  Brazen  Age,  followed  by  an 
Iron  Age,  is  sometimes  further  distinguished.  The  writers  before  and 
after  the  Classical  period  are,  however,  now  generally  classed  simply  as 
Ante-classical  and  Post-classical  writers,  respectively. 

Note  2.  The  following  alphabetical  list  of  the  chief  Latin  writers  is 
subjoined  as  a  convenient  reference-list  for  the  pupil. 


Acc.  or  Att. 
Amrn. 
App. 
A  ug. 

Aur.  Vict. 
A  us. 
Bo'eth. 


Caecil. 


L.  Accius  or  Attlns  (trag.)         170-94  b.  c. 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  (hist.)    died  A.  D.  400. 
L.  Appuleius  (philos.)  flour.  A.  D.  160. 

Aurelius    Augustlnus     (Chr. 

wi-it.)  died  A.  D.  430. 

Sextus  Aurelius  Victor  (hist.)    flour.  A.  D.  360. 
D.  Magnus  Ausonius  (poet)       died  A.  d.  390. 
Anicius    Manlius    Torquiitus 

Severinus  Boetius  or  Boe- 

thius  (philos.) 
Statius  Caecilius  (corned.) 


died  A.  D.  525. 
flour.  180  B.  c. 


Caes. 
Cassiod, 


Cato 


Cat 
Cat  all 
Cels. 


.  or) 

all.  ) 


PRINCIPAL    LATIN   WRITERS.  425 

Gains  lulius  Caesar  (hist.)        100-44  b.  c. 
Magnus    Aurelius    Cassiodo- 

rus  (hist.) 
M.   Porcius  Cato  (orat.  and 

hist.) 


Censor, 
Charts, 

Cic.  or  C 

Claud, 
Col. 

Comif. 

Curt, 

Donat.  or  |^ 

Don,  ) 

Enn, 

Fest, 

Flor. 

Front. 

Front\ 

Fronto 

F, 

Gai, 

Gell, 

Hier, 

Hirt, 

Hor. 
lust. 


t.  or) 
tin.  ) 
^rojito  or  ) 
"^yont,       ) 


C.  Valerius  Catullus  (poet) 

Aurelius      Cornelius     Celsus 

(physic.) 
Censorlnus  (gram.) 
Flavins    Sosipater   Charisius 

(gram.) 
M.  Tullius  Cicero  (orat.  and 

philos.) 
Claudius  Claudianus  (poet) 
L.    lunius    Moderatus    Colu- 
mella (husbandry) 
Q.    Cornificius     (rhet.     "ad 

Herennium  ") 
Q.  Curtius  Rufus  (hist.) 


died  A.  D.  575. 

234-149  B.  c. 
87-54  B.  c. 

flour.  A.  D.  50. 
flour.  A.  D.  238. 

flour.  A.  D.  375. 

106-43  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  400. 

flour.  A.  D.  50. 

flour.  80  B.  c.  ? 
flour.  A.  D.  50. 


flour.  A.  D.  350. 
239-169  B.  c. 


Allius  Donatus  (comment.) 

Q.  Ennius  (poet) 
Sex.  Pompeius  Festus  (gram.)    flour.  A.  d.  l^^O  • 
L.  Annaeus  FlOrus  (hist.)  flour,  a.  d.  140. 

S.  lulius    Frontinus   (engin., 
etc.) 


M.  Cornelius  Fronto  (orat.) 

Gaius  (lurisconsultus) 
Aulus  Gellius  (gram.,  etc.) 
Hieronymus  (Chr.  writ.) 
Aulus    Hirtius     (hist.,    "8th 

book  of  Caes.,"  etc.) 
Q.  Horatius  Flaccus  (poet) 
lustinianus  (emperor, 

-Code") 


A.  D.  40-103. 
A.  D.  100-175. 


A.  D.  110-180. 
A.  D.  130-175. 
died  A.  D.  420. 

died  44  B.  c. 
65-8  B.  c. 

died  A.  D.  565. 


9 


42G 


APPENDIX. 


Tuv, 

Ldct, 

Liv. 

Liu,  Andron. 

Luc. 

Lucil. 

Lucr, 

Macr, 

Mart, 
Mart,  Cap, 

Mel.  or  Mela 
Min,  Fel. 
Naev. 

Nep, 

N(m. 

Oa. 

Pac.  or  \ 

Pacuv.   j 

Pers. 

Petr. 

Phaedr. 
Plant, 
PI  in, 

Plin, 

Prise. 
Prop, 


D.    lunius    luveniilis     (satir. 

poet) 
L.  Caelius  Lactantius  Firmi- 

anus  (Chr.  writ.) 
Titus  Livius  (hist.) 
Livius  Andronlcus  (trag.) 
M.  Annaeus  Lucanus  (poet) 
C.    Eiinius    Lucilius     (satir. 

poet) 
T.    Lucretius    Carus     (poet, 

philos.) 
Aurelius  Theodosius  Macro- 

bius  (critic) 
M.  Valerius  Martialis  (poet) 
Martiiinus      Miiineus     Felix 

Capella  (satir.) 
Pomjxlnius  Mela  (geog.) 
Minucius  Felix  (Chr.  writ.) 
C.  Naevius  (dram,  and  epic 

poet) 
Cornelius  Nepos  (biog.) 
Nonius  Marcellus  (gram.) 
P.  Ovidius  Naso  (poet) 

M.  Pacuvius  (trag.) 

A.  Persius  Flaccus  (satir.) 
Petronius      Arbiter      (satir. 

romanc.) 
T.  Phaedrus  (fab.) 
T.  Maccius  Plautus  (corned.) 
C.  Plinius  Secundus  [Maior] 

(nat.  hist.) 
C.  Plinius  Caecilius  Secundus 

[Minor]  (letters) 
Priscianus  (gram.) 
Sextus  Propertius  (poet) 


A.  D.  60-140. 

died  A.  D.  '62b, 
59  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  17. 
284-204  B.  c. 
A.  D.  39-65. 

died  103  b.  c. 

98-55  B.  c. 

flour.  A.  D.  400. 
A,  D.  40-102. 

flour.  A.  D.  425  ? 
flour.  A.  D.  45. 
flour.  A.  D.  200. 

235-199  B.  c. 
flour.  44  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  280  ? 
43  B.  C.  -  A.  D.  17. 

220-132  B.  c. 
A.  D.  34-62. 

flour.  A.  D.  60  ? 
flour.  A.  D.  40. 
254-184  B.  c. 

A.  D.  23-79. 

A.  D.  62-113. 
flour.  A.  D.  500. 
49-15  B.  c. 


PRINCIPAL   LATIN   WRITERS. 


427 


Prud, 

Quint. 
Sail, 
Sen, 
Sen, 

Serv, 
Sid, 

Sit. 

Stat. 

Suet. 

Tac. 

Ter.  or  T. 
Ter.  Maur. 
Tert. 

Tlh. 
Ulp. 
Val.  Fl. 
Vol.  Max. 

Val.  Proh. 
Varr. 

Veil. 

Ver.  Flac. 
Verg. 
Vitr, 


Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens 

(Chr.  writ.) 
M.  Fabius  Quintilianus  (rhet.) 
C.  Sallustius  Crispus  (hist.) 
[M.]  Annaeus  Seneca  (rhet.) 
L.    Annaeus    Seneca    (phil. 

and  trag.) 
Servius  Honoratus  (gi*am.) 
Apollinaris    Sidonius     (Chr. 

writ.) 
C.  Silius  Italicus  (-poet) 
P.  Papinius  Statins  (poet) 
C.      Suetonius       Tranquillus 

(biog.) 
C.  Cornelius  Tacitus  (hist.) 
P.  Terentius  Afer  (corned.) 
Terentianus  Maurus  (gram.) 
Q.  Septimius  Florens  Tertul- 

lianus  (Chr.  writ.) 
Albius  TibuUus  (poet) 
Domitius  Ulpianus  (jur.) 
C.  Valerius  Flaccus  (poet) 
Valerius     Maximus     (hist. 

anec.) 
M.  Valerius  Probus  (gram.) 
M.     Terentius    Varro     (hus- 
bandry, gram.,  etc.) 
P.  Velleius  Paterculus  (hist.) 
Verrius  Flaccus  (gram.) 
P.  Vergilius  Maro  (poet) 
Vitruvius  Pollio  (arch.) 


flour.  A.  D.  400. 
A.  D.  35-95. 
87-34  B.  c. 
54  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  39. 

4  B.  C.  -  A.  D.  65. 

flour.  A.  1).  390. 

died  A.  D.  488. 
A.  I).  25-101. 
A.  D.  45-96. 

A.  D.  75-160. 
A.  D.  55-119. 
185-159  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  290. 

died  A.  D.  220. 
54-19  B.  c. 
died  A.  D.  228. 
flour.  A.  D.  70. 

flour.  A.  D.  26. 
flour.  A.  D.  60  ? 

116-27  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  30  ? 
died  4  B.  c.  ? 
70-19  B.  c. 
flour.  10  B.  C. 


INDEX. 


THE  references  in  the  following  Index  are  to  the  sections  and  sab-FPCtions,  not  to 
pages.  N  Htauds  for  note,  ?  for  foot-note,  ff .  after  a  number  indicates  that  the  subject 
extends  through  several  sections. 


A,  sound  of,  16;  noun  steins  in,  89, 
91  ff. ;  adjective  stems  in,  142  ff. ; 
verb  f«tem9  in,  217  IT.  ;  Greek 
nouns  in,  of  1st  decl.,  94  ;  Greek 
nouns  in,  of  3d  decl.,  125  (4); 
eunlionic  chancres  of,  58  ff. ;  quan- 
tity of ,  46,  46  a  (l),  225,  211. 

A,  «6,  ahs.  with  abl.,  427,  430; 
with  verbs  of  asking,  394  (2)  n; 
with  verbs  of  ori^-in,  405  a;  to 
denote  agent,  406;  form  of,  in 
composition,  301  (1);    meanings 

of,  561(1).  .    . 

Abbreviations,  667  ;  of  praenomina, 

666  d. 
Abest,  tantum  .  .  .  ut,  with  ut  or  qmn, 

499  c. 

Ablative.  88  (6) ;  sing,  in  3d  decl., 
114,  115  ;  sing,  in  adj.  of  3d  decl., 
148^  155  (2) ;  plur.  in  -dbns,  93  e; 
plur.  in  -dbHS,  160;  plur.  in  -ubus, 
129 ;  old  form  of,  in  d,  90  ¥  ;  as 
adverb,  293,  557  c ;  of  character  or 
qual.,  411 ;  w  ith  prep.,  430,  431 ; 
with  comp.  verbs,  380  6 ;  with  opus 
and  usus,  417  ;   with  dhjinis,  etc., 
418;    with  iVor,  etc.,  419;    with 
nltor,  etc.,  420  ;  with  (tdsnesco,  etc., 
421 ;  of  source,  405  ;  of  material, 
405  c;  of  cause,  404;  of  means 
or  inst.,  407;  of  agent,  406;  of 
manner  or  accomp.,  410  ;  of  spe- 
cif., 412  ;  of  plenty.  409 ;  of  want, 
414 ;  with  facio,  412  a ;  of  sepa- 
ration, 413;    of    price.   408;    of 
lime,  424 ;  of  place,  425  ff .  ;  with 
compar.,  416  ;  of  deg.  of  diff.,  415 ; 
absolute,  422 ;  with  de,  ex,  in,  in- 
stead of  part,  gen.,  358  (.5) ;  of  the 


penalty,  367  6;    with   dono,  etc., 
379;    of  way   by  which,   407  c; 
with  palam,  431  g;  of  gerund  and 
gerundive,  551  c. 
Absque  with  abl,  meanings  of,  561 

Abstract  nouns,  75  i ;  endings  of, 
272  ff . ;  used  collectively,  434 ; 
use  of  plur.  of,  437  (3) ;  neut.  adj. 
used  for,  439  (1),  (4);  formed 
from  nouns  and  adj.,  273;  formed 
from  verbs,  274. 

^bus,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  in,  93  e. 

Ac  or  atque,  562  (3)  ;  in  compar.,  562 
(3)  b;  subjunctive  with  dc,  si, 
481  (2). 

Acatalectic  verse,  605  b. 

Accent,  30 ;  acute,  grave,  and  cir- 
cumflex, 30  a  F  2  ;  rules  of,  31  ff. ; 
further  back  than  antepenult  in 
early  Latin,  33  a;  of  gen.  and 
voc.'ini  for  u  or  ie,  97  n. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  410. 

Accusative,  88  (4)  ;  sing,  in  3d  decl., 
113 ;  neut.  used  as  adverb,  174  c, 
293  557  b;  as  direct  object,  392 
ff  ;'with  miscret,  etc.,  364  (2); 
with  invo,  376a ;  with  verbs  comp. 
with  trdns,  394  (3);  with  verbs 
comp.  with  ante,  ad,  etc.,  377  (2) ; 
with  verbal  nouns  and  adj.,  399; 
of  specif.,  398;  with  prep,  429, 
431 ;  of  time,  423  ;  of  place,  423, 
425  ff. ;  of  exclam.,  400;  as  snbj. 
of  intin.,  401 ;  two  ace,  394;  re- 
tained in  pass.,  394  (2)  c;  with 
propior,  etc.,  390  (4);  cognate, 
396;  adverbial,  397;  with  mid- 
dle voice,  395 ;  of  the  anticipated 


430 


INDEX. 


subject,    393   b;  of    gerund    and 

gerundive,  551  6,  552  {'2). 
Accusing  and  acquitting,  verbs  of, 

constr.,  367. 
-dceus,  adj.  ending,  268. 
Acquiesco,  constr.  with,  421  a. 
Ad,   constr.   of   verbs,   comp.  with, 

377;  meaning  "nearly,"  559  (1) 

F  ;     form    in    comp.,    301     (2)  ; 

with  ace,  429 ;  meanings  of.  659 

(1). 
-ades,  patronymic  ending,  277,  278 

Adeino,  constr.  with,  380. 
Adhuc  locorum,  355  (5)  a. 
Adjectives,   74  (2),  141 ;  classes  of. 
142  ;   1st  and  2d  dec!.,  143  ff.  ;  3d 
decl.,  149  ff. ;  three  endin;rs,  150, 
151  ;  two  endings,  152,  153  ;  one 
ending,  154;  abl.  sing,  in  3d  decl., 
155  (2) ;  -urn  in  gen.  plur.  of,  155 
(3) ;  redundant,  155  (7) ;  adj.  pro- 
nouns,  179  n;  position   of,  587; 
numeral,  156  ff.  ;  multijdicative, 
286   (1);   proportional,  286   (2); 
temporal,  286  (3)  ;  defective,  155 
(5),  (6)  ;  comparison  of,  163  ff.  ; 
irreg.  conjpar..  166  ff.  ;   defective 
compar.,  170   £f.  ;    derivation  of, 
254  ff. ;  compound,  295  ff. ;  verbal, 
252  a  ;  agreement  of,  332  ff.  ;  with 
nouns  of  diff.  gender,  336  ff.  ;  not 
agreeing  with  proper  names,  441 ; 
peculiarities   in   u.se  of.   438   ff.  ; 
without  a  noun,  438,  439  ;  neut. 
as  adverb,  174  c,  293,  557  6,  c; 
adj.    used  where    English  prefers 
noun    with    prep,,   440;    gender 
with  part,  gen.,  341  ft;  used  with 
gen.  case,  359  ff.;  with  dat.,  388 
ff. ;    with  infin.,  536  (2) ;    for  ad- 
verb,   557  h;    position   of,    with 
regard  to  their  nouns,  586. 
Admonishing,  verbs  of,  366,  367  c. 
Admonitu,  137  (4)  n. 
Adonic  verse,  644,  646  (I). 
Adsiiesco^    adsuefacio,  constr.  with 

421. 
Adventu,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  h. 
Adverbs,  74  (5);  correl.,  187;  of 
manner,  557  a,  d;  of  amount, 
557  b;  of  degree,  557  c,  d ;  nu- 
meral. 157  (4).  158  ff.;  deriva- 
tion of,  292,  293 ;  comparison  of. 


174  ff. ;  qualifying  particip.  used 
as  nouns,  438  a;  position  of 
588. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  566  ff. 
Adcersns,  with  ace,  429;  meaniufrs 

of,  559  (2).  *' 

I  Ae,  diphthong,  7 ;  how  pronounced, 

17 ;  weakened  in  late  Latin  to  e, 

17  6;  euphonic  chan«;e  of,  60;  iii 

reduplication,  231  (3)  d. 
Aegyptum,  as  ace.  of  motion  toward 

426  e. 
Aequo,  after  compai-atives,  416  6. 
-aeus,  adj.  ending,  268  a. 
Agency,  nouns  (»f,  270. 
Agent,  abl.  of,  406;   dat.  of,  383. 
Ages  of  Latin  literature,  668  n  1. 
Af/iiomen,  666  6  n. 
Agreement,   of  verb,    316   ff.  ;    of 

appos.  ami  pred.  nouns,  324  ff. ;  of 

adj.,  332  ff. ;  of  rel.  pron.,  342  ff. 
Ai,  old   diphthong,  7  a;   old  gen. 

and  dat.  ending,  93  a. 
ai,   how   represented   in   Latin,    38 

d  N. 

Aio,  conjugation  of,  249  (4) ;  use  of, 
516   bf   aiUim,   etc.,  as  dissylla  , 
249  (4)  a. 
•aly  nouns  in,  47  a,  103,  262  a. 
Alcaic  verse.  647. 
Alcmanian  strophe,  616. 
Alibi,  cdicxiln,  308. 
Alienus,    use   of,  for  gen.   of  alius, 

147  (2). 
Aliquis,  declined,  184;  difference  in 
subs,  and  adj.   forms  of,  184  b\ 
use  of,  457. 
-dlis,  adj.  ending,  262. 
Aliter,  174  p. 

Alius,  declined,  146;   use  of,  460; 

followed   by  ablative,  416  d;  alii, 

aliis,  for  reciprocal  relation,  449 

(2). 

Alphabet,  3  ff.  ;  divided  into  vowels 

and  consonants,  4. 
Alter,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  use  of, 
460  ;  alter  .  .  .  alter,  598  a;  instead 
oisecundus,  161  d;  genitive  a//€rius 
used  for  alius,  147  (2). 
Alteruter,  146  a,  460  c. 
Amb,  form  in  comp..  302  (1). 
Ambo,  declension  of,  160  6;  distin- 
guished from  uterqne,  460  a. 
Amo,  conjugated,  222,  223. 


INDEX. 


431 


Amplius,  with  or  without  quam,  416 

c. 
An,  use  of,  578,  580;  haud  scio  an, 
etc,  579  a. 

Anacreontic  verse,  629. 

AudcrOsis,  618  (4). 

Analogy  in  word-formation,  257  n. 

Anapaestic  verse,  630. 

Ann  ph  or  a,  598  (1),  659  (4). 

Animi,  locative  use  of,  426  b. 

Anne,  use  of,  580  6. 

Annon,  use  of,  581. 

Ante,  with  ace,  429  ;  constr.  of  verl  s 
comp.  with,  377  ;  w  ith  quam,  505  ; 
with  ace.  or  abl.  in  expressions  of 
time,  559  (3)  1st  f  ;  form  in  comp., 
301  (3);  meanings  of,  559  (3); 
ante  diem,  etc,  424  c,  e,f. 

Antecedent,  342. 

Antepenult,  25  N  (I)  ;  quantity  of 
certJiiu  antepenults,  52. 

Anteqnam,  moods  with,  505. 

-anus,  adj.  ending,  265. 

Aorist  tense,  462  (1)6. 

Apocope,  63  ii.,  659  (6). 

Apodosis,  N  before  476. 

Appellative  nouns,  76  ii. 

Apppfens,  etc.,  constr.  with.  361. 

Apposition,  324  ff.  ;  genitive  in- 
stead of,  326;  with  names  of 
towns,  426  g,  h :  with  noinrn,  326 
a;  partitive,  325  c;  correspon- 
dence in  gender  and  number  with 
limited  noun,  329. 

Aptus,ad,  390  (1). 

Apnd,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (4). 

Arbitrdta,  137  (4)  a. 

Archilochian  verse,  617,  654. 

Aristophanic  verse,  646  (2). 

-aris,  adj.  ending.  262. 

•drum,  noun  ending,  276  (4) ;  -drius, 
adj.  ending,  269. 

Arrangement  of  words,  584  ff. 

Arsis  and  thesis,  607. 

-da,  genitives  in,  93  c  ;  nouns  of  3d 
decl.  in,  109;  Gentile  ending,  279. 

-3.S  in  ace  plur.  of  Greek  nouns,  124 ; 
genti'e    adj.    ending,    279;    final 
<|uantity  of,  50. 
^.s,  unit  of  value,  662  (1),  (2);  assis, 

as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 
Asclepiadean  verse,  645. 
Asking,  etc  ,  verbs  of,  with  two  ace, 


394  (2)  ;  constr.  in  passive,  394 

(2)  c  ;  subjune  with,  486,  491. 
Asperfjo,  constr.  with,  379. 
Aspirates,  11  iii.  ;  sounds  of,  18^. 
-dsso,  etc.,  as  future  perf.  and  future 

eudin;is,  228  d,  e. 
Assimilation,  65  ff. ;  partial,  66,  67. 
Ast,  566  (2)  F. 
As'fndeton,  564,  564  c. 
•dt(i),  stem  ending  of  nouns,  109  a  ; 

of  adj.,  279. 
At,  conjunction,  566  (2). 
-atiniy  adverbs  in,  292  (2). 
Atipw,  use  of,  562  (3) ;  in  compar., 

562  (3)  l>. 
Atqui,  use  of,  569  (1). 
Attraction,  with  relative,  342  d,  e; 

subjune.  of,  523. 
Attributives,  333. 
-dtus,  adj.  ending,  280. 
An,  diphthong,  7;  how  pronounced, 

17  ;  euphonic  change  of,  60. 
Audcd,  semi-deponent,  196. 
Audio,  conjugated,  222,223;  dicta 

audiens  with  dat.,  391  (4). 
Ausim,  228  d. 
Aut,  use  of,  565. 
Autem,  use   of,   568 ;    postpositive, 

590  a. 
•dr-,  perf.  stem  ending,  218  h. 
-ax,  adj.  ending,  267. 

D,  final  or  before  s,  like  p,  18  f. ; 

eui)honic  changes  of,  66  i.,  vi. 
Bacchiac  vers(>,  631. 
lialimum,  38  d ;  pi.,  135  (4). 
Barhiton,  declined,  98. 
Belli,  locative  use  of,  426  (2)  a ;  bello, 

as  abl.  of  time,  424  6. 
'bet,  end  of  names  of  months,  151 ; 

of  other  adjectives,  284. 
-hilis,  adj.  ending,  261. 
Black  days,  660  (fi)  n  1. 
Bonus,  declined,  143. 
Bos,  declined,  110. 
-l)ri-,  stem  endings,  108  b. 
Brachycatalectic  verse,  605  6. 
-brum,  noun  ending,  258. 
Bucolic  diaeresis,  608  a.  614  n. 
■bulum,  noun  ending,  258, 
A}undas,  adj.  in,  281 ;  with  ace,  399. 

C,  sound  of,  18;    originally  repre- 
senting sound  of  our  G,3  d ;  as 


432 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


433 


abbreviation  for  Gdius.  3  d;  eu- 
phonic changes  of,  66  iii.,  vii.,  69 
ii.  (l),71  (1). 

Caelum,  phiT.  of,  135  (3). 

Caesura,  608  (I);  inasc.  and  fern., 
608  6;  iu  hexameter,  608  a,  614 
N ;  in  iambic  vtrse,  624  ff.  ;  in 
troclmic  verse,  619  b :  iu  Sapphic 
verse,  646  n  ;  princip:«l,  608  (2) ; 
penthemimeral,  608  b. 

Calendar.  661. 

Calends,  660  (4). 

Caftid,  conjii-jaiod,  222,  223. 

Capital  letters,  3  a;  as  numerals, 
162. 

Caput,  declined,  104  ;  capltia  and 
capitalis  poenae,  as  gen.  of  penalty, 
367  a  ;  capite  without  prop.,  426  d. 

Carbasits,  plnr.  of,  135  (2). 

Cardinal  numbers,  157  (I). 

Card,  111  (2). 

Case-endings,  table  of,  90;  in  1st 
decl.,  93 ;  in  2d  decl.,  97 ;  in  3d 
decl.,  112  ff.  ;  in  4th  decl.,  128; 
in  5th  (let! ,  133  ;  in  adjectives, 
147,  155  ;  iu  pronouns,  179,  189, 
182,  184  ff. 

Case(s),  87,  88. 

Catalectic  verse,  605  b. 

Catullus,  metres  of,  645  ff. 

Causa,  (/id/id,  etc.,  with  gcu.,  404 
(3)  6. 

Causal  conjunctions,  moods  with, 
519  ff.  ;  clauses,  position  of,  596 
(2). 

Cause,  abl.  of,  404. 

Cavere,  with  dat.  or  ace.  in  diff. 
senses,  378. 

Cave,  use  of,  493  a,  529  d. 

-ce,  enclitic,  35  a;  attached  to  de- 
monstr.  pron.,  180  c. 

Cedo,  imperative,  249  (10)  c. 

Celer,  declension  of,  151. 

Celo,  constr.  with,  394  (2). 

Ceritena  mVia,  663  n  3. 

-cer,  -en's,  adjective  endings,  284. 

Certe,  use  of,  572. 

Ceterum,  as  conj.,  568  b. 

'Ceus,  adjective  ending,  268. 

Ch,  11  iii. ;  sound  of,  18  g. 

Characteristic,  gen.  of,  356;  abl. 
of,  411  ;  clauses  of,  500  (2) ;  vowel, 
in  nouns  and  adj.,  89  a ;  in  verbs, 
217  F. 


Chiasmus,  598  (2),  659  (10). 

Choliambic  verse,  628. 

Choriambic  verse,  632. 
Circittr,  with  ace,  429 ;  as  adverb, 
559  (6)  F  2 ;    meanings  of,   559 
,(6). 

Circum  {circa),  with  ace,  429 ;  mean- 
ings of,  559  (5). 

Circumdo,  constr.  with,  379. 

Cis,  citrd,  with  ace,  429 ;  meanings 
of,  559  (7). 

Citeiiur,  compared,  170  (1). 

Cities,  gendtr  of  names  of,  81  ii. 

-cius,  adjective  ending,  268. 

Clam,  constr.  with,  431  7. 

Clauses,  312  ff.  ;  as  sui)ject,  318  a, 
484,  531,  540,  541  ;  wiih  parti- 
ciple  iu  abl.  absul.,  422  b;  de- 
pendent in  form  but  independent 
in  force,  quoted,  516  d. 

Close  syllables,  25  n  3  ;  vowels,  5 
F  2. 

Coepi,  conjugated,  249  (3). 

Cognate  ace,  396. 

Coipiomu,  666  (3). 

Collective  nouns,  76  iii.  ;  abstracts 
used  for,  434  (cf.  435) ;  aL'reemeut 
with,  346  (1),  347  (1),  348(1). 

Com,  form  in  compounds,  301  (4). 

Commanding,  verbs  of,  casrs  with, 
376;  mood  with,  487,  489  (4), 
490,  491. 

Commands,  expressed  bv  imperat., 
527,  528;  by  subj.,  472,  529  a, />, 
(2) ;  in  other  way^,  527  d,  e,  529 
c,  </,  e. 

Comitits,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  6. 

Common,  nouns,  76  ii. ;  gender,  83  ; 
quantity,  26,  27.  29. 

Comparative,  conj.,  mood  with, 
481 ;  tenses  of  snhjunc.  with,  481 
a,  526 a  (2)  ;  de^rt'e,  164(2) ;  nsis 
of,  164  a;  formation  of,  165  ff. ; 
wanting:,  171 ;  cotnparatives  (hrl., 
152  ;  comparative  clauses  with 
qnam,  quoted,  516  e. 

Comparison,  74  (8)  n  ;  of  adj.,  163 
ff.  ;  irrrg.,  166  ff. ;  defective,  170 
ff. ;  with  marjis  and  rndxime,  173 ; 
of  adverbs,  174  ff. 

Complementary  infin.,  532. 

Completed  action,  tenses  of,  462  ; 
syntax  of,  in  snbj.  in  indepcnd. 
clauses,  472  c,  473  </,  474  a,  475 


\ 


a;  conditional  clauses,  etc.,  476 
(2)  b;  clauses  of  purpose,  482  (3) 
b;  of  result,  483  (3)  c;  temporal 
clauses,  470  (2),  511  a. 

Complex  sentence,  314  a. 

Compound,  words,  251,  294  ff . ; 
nouns  and  adj  ,  295  ff. ;  verbs, 
298;  (luasi-compouuds,  300  a,  b; 
compound  sentences,  311  (2); 
quantity  of  compounds,  53,  304 

ff. 

Concession,  hortatory  subj.  denot- 
ing, 472  (4).  ,  ,   , 

Conative  use  of  ]>res.  tense  (at- 
tempted action).  464. 

Concessive  purtichs,  moods  with, 
478  ff. ;  use  of  lenses  with,  524  a 
(3),  526  a  (2). 

Concrete  nouns.  75  ii.,  76;  used 
for  abstracts,  432,  433. 

Condemning,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 

267.  I 

Conditional  particles,  moods  with, 

476  ff.  I 
Conditions,  simple.  476  ;   contrarv  j 

to  fact,  476  (/,  477  a,  c;   general,  ! 

477  d;  in  indir.  discourse,  517 ; 
mixed  forms,  477  <",/  .      i 

Coiifvlo,  semi-deponent,   196;  with 

abl.,  420;  with  dat.,  420  a. 
Con  fit,  246  «,  249  (10)  r/. 
Conjugation,  74  (8)  n,  208  ff. ;  regu- 

l;ir,  217  ff. ;  periphra^^tic,  229  ;  ir- 

reg.,  239  ff. ;    defective,  249  ;   of 

s/<m,  215;  ftossiim,  216. 
Conjunctions.  74  (7),  562  ff. ;  copu- 

lative,  562  ff.  ;  disjunctive,  565; 

adversative,  566  ff. ;  illative,  570; 

words  for  "  for,"  571  ;  position  of, 

590. 

Connectives,  relatives  used  as, 451 ; 

quidem,  etc.,  572. 
Consecutive  clauses,  with  particles, 

483  (1),  (3);  with  relatives,  483 

(2)  ;     substantive     clauses,    484, 

493  ff. 
Consonants,  4  ii.,  9  ff. ;  sounds  of, 

18  ;  eti}>honic  changes  of,  65  ff 
Consonant  stems  of  nt>uns,  100  ff. ; 

of  adj.,  152  ff. ;  of  verbs,  217  a. 
Coiisfdre,  with  ablative  of  material, 

405  e 
Constat,  impersonal,   250  c;   mood 

with,  318  (4)  a,  531  a. 


Cdnstructio  ad  sensum,  345  ff. 
Consuesco,  constr.  with,  421. 
Consulere,  with  dat.  and  ace.  in  diff. 

senses,  378. 
Conterttus,  with  abl.,  418. 
Continued  action,  ten.->e  of,  461. 
Ccntrd,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings  of, 

559  (8). 
Contracted   svllables,   quantity  of, 

40.  42  a 
Contraction,   61  ;    in   tenses  from 

])crf.  stem,  228  a. 
Copulative  conj.,  562  ff. 
Coram,  with  abl.,  430  ;  meanings  of, 

561  (3). 
Correlatives,  table  of,  187. 
CiedibiU,  after  comparatives,  416  b. 
Ciedd,  241  b,  c. 
Cretic  verse,  631. 
,  Crime,  ^en.  of  the,  367. 
i  -crum,  noun  ending,  258. 
j  Cu  for  earlier  quo,  59  c,  185  <f  n  ; 
186  (2)  a  F. 
Ciids,  declined,  188  a. 
I  cuius,  declined,  186  (2). 
!  -culum,  noun  ending,  258. 
'  -cnlns,  -a,  ~um,  diminutive  endings, 
259(4). 
Cum,  prep,  with  ab!.,  430;  with  abl. 
!      of  accomp.,  410  (1) ;  meanings  of, 
I      561  (4) ;   appended  to  pronouns, 

I      431  e. 

'  Cum,  moods  with,  509  ff. 

I  Cum  .  .  .  turn,  513,  563  (2). 

fundus,  adj.  ending,  281. 

Curdut,  with  subj,  527  d. 
'  ^HS,  adj.  ending,  266,  279. 
I  Customary    action,    expressed    by 
1       pres.  and  imperf.,  464. 
;  CycUc  dactyl,  643  a. 


i),final  like  t,  18  f.;  euphonic  changes 
of,  66  iv.,  69  ii.  (2),  iii.,  71. 
I  Dactylic  verse,  614  ff. 

Dates,  424  c,  d,  e,J,  660. 
i  Dative,  88  (3) ;  in  -abus,  93  e ;  in 
!  -dhns,  160;  in  -ubus,  129;  m  -e, 
'  133  (1),  217  6  F  2  ;  used  for  pre- 
dicate noun,  331  (I);  of  advan- 
tage, 381 ;  of  service,  385  ;  with 
adj.,  388  ff.;  indirect  obj ,  374 ; 
with  comp.  of  ante,  ad,  etc.,  377 
l\)'  with  comp.  with  ab,d€,  etc, 
380 ;  with  nouns,  391  (2) ;  with 


434 


INDEX. 


adverbs,  391  (1);  of  agent,  383; 
of  possessor,  384;  two  datives, 
386;  ethical,  382;  with  verbs 
meiiuiuj;  ''please,  displease,"  etc., 
376 ;  of  gerund  aud  j^erundive, 
551  a;  dat.  and  ace  with  certain 
verbs  have  diff.  meauiuf^s,  378. 

Days  of  the  week,  names  of,  660  (6) 
N  2. 

De,  with  abl.,  430 ;  with  verbs  of 
accusing;,  askiu*^,  etc.,  367  a ;  in- 
stead of  part,  gen.,  358  (5) ;  mean- 
ings of,  561  (5). 

Dta,  dat.  and  aid.  plur.  of,  93  e. 

Debed,  iinper.  indie,  for  bubj.,  474  d, 
477  c. 

Decet,  impers.,  250  a. 

Declarative  sentences,  315  (I). 

Declension,  74  (8)  n  :  of  nouns,  89 
ff.  ;  1st  dccl.,  91  ff.;  2d  decl.,  95 
ft.;  3d  decl.,  99  ff . ;  4th  decl., 
126  ff. ;  5th  decl,  132,  133;  of 
adj.,  141  ff.;  1st  and  2d  decl., 
143  ff. ;  3d  decl.,  148  ff. ;  of  alius, 
etc.,  145 ff. ;  of  pers.  pron.,  178  ff. ; 
of  reflex,  pron  ,  179  ;  of  possess, 
pron.,  186 ;  of  demonstr.  ])ron., 
180  ff . ;  of  rel.  and  intcrrog.  pron., 
183  ff . ;  of  patrials,  188  a ;  end- 
ings of,  90. 

Dedi,  231  ff  (1). 

Defective,  nouns,  134  (3) ;  137  ff. ; 
adj.,  155  (."}),  (6)  ;  verbs,  249. 

Dejit,  249  (10)  c/. 

Degrees  of  comparison,  163  (2) ; 
inferior  degrees,  164 1/ ;  expres- 
sions for  a  high  degree  and  the 
highest  degree,  164  b,  c. 

Dein,  deincfi}>s,  deinde,  pronuncia- 
tion, 35  b. 

Delos,  declined,  98. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  177  (2)  ; 
declension  of,  180;  distinctions  in 
their  use,  181,  450 ;  used  for  the 
third  personal  pronoun,  447 ; 
other  uses,  450;  "that  of" 
omitted,  450  (3)  6. 

Denarius,  663  n  1 . 

Denominative (s),  252  a;  verbs, 
287  ff. 

Dentals,  12  ii. 

Dependent  clauses,  314  (2). 

Deponent  verbs,  195;  conjugation 
of,   223   (last  paradigm) ;  use   of 


sing 


•» 


participles  of,  206  a,  544  a,  b ;  list 
of  in  3il  conju;,^ation,  236. 

Depriving,  verbs  of,  with  abl,  413, 
414  ;  with  dat.,  380. 

Derivation  of  word-,  251  ff. ;  simple 
words,  254  ff.  ;  nouns  and  adjec, 
254-286  ;  verbs,  287-291  ;  ad- 
verbs, 292,  293. 

Derivative  woids,  252. 

iJi'sa,   not    found    in    nom. 
155  (6). 

Desiderative  verbs,  290. 

Determinative  compounds,  295  A. 

Determining:,  etc.,  verbs  of,  coustr. 
^^ith,  486,  480,  491,  533  (2). 

Deterior,  conjpar.,  170  (1). 

JJetcrreo,  moods  w!th,  493  (2)  6. 

Deiis,  declined,  97  (l>). 

Diaeresis,  8,  608  (1),  609  (3);  bu- 
colic, 608  (/,  614  N. 

Dialijsis,  609  (3). 

Diastole,  609  (4). 

J  'ic,  imper.,  227  e. 

I  led,  with  ace.  and  infin.,  533  (1)  ; 
with  »'/,  490  (2)  ;  introducing  both 
direct  and  indirect  di^course, 
516  /'. 

Dicta,  as  abl.  after  comparatives, 
416  b  ;  audieits,  with  dat.,  391  (4). 

Diciint  =  \hey  say,  317  (2);  dicor, 
with  infin.  and  pred.  nom.,  534. 

-fliriis,  adj.  in,  compared,  168  (2). 

[Jido,  d( dined,  124. 

Dies,  declined,  132. 

Difference,  degree  of,  abl.  of,  415. 

Ihfficilis,  compar.,  167. 

IJvjvus,  with  al)l.,  418;  with  gen., 
418a  ;  with  relative  and  subjunc, 
555  r,  cf.  500  (2) ;  with  supine  in 
-M,  555  b  ;  with  infin.,  536  a. 

Dimeter,  604  ;  tiO(  hale,  622  ;  iam- 
bic, 629;  anapaestic,  630  (3),  (4). 

Diminutive,  nouns  and  adj.,  259  ff. ; 
verbs,  291. 

Diphthongs,  6,  7  ;  sounds  of,  17  ; 
quantiiy  of,  39;  euphonic  changes 
of,  60 ;  Latin  representatives  of 
Greek,  38  d  v. 

Dipody,  605  (1). 

Dis,  form  in  coinp  ,  302  (2). 

Distessu,  as  al)l.  of  time,  424  h. 

Disertm,  302  (2). 

Disjunctive  conj.,  565  ;  questions, 
580,  581. 


INDEX. 


435 


Diasimills,  compar.,  167. 
Distance,  cases  expressed  by,  423  b. 
Distich,  605  a. 
Distributive    numerals,    157    (3)  ; 

used  for  cardinals,  161. 
Dm,  compared,  176. 
Do,  conjugated,  241  ;  not  properly 

of  Ist  conj.,  233  F  2. 
^d,  noun  ending,  272,  273  (3). 
Docto,  constr.  with,  394  (2)  b,  407  6; 

pa.«sive  conjugated,  223. 
Doininus,  declined,  95. 
Domus,  declined,  130;    domi,   loca- 
tive, 130  a,  426  a. 
Donee,  moods  with.  502  ff. 
Dono,  cases  with,  379. 
Double  consonants,  9  iii ,  3  e,  10  a,  j 

12  a  ;  questions,  580,  581. 
Doubled    consonants    not    making 

position  in  Plautus,  641. 
Doubtful  gender,  83  N. 
Dual  number,  86  a. 
Dubitative  subjunctive,  475  ;  in  m- 

direct  (piestions,  475  N. 
DubiU),  with  quln,  499  'f  ;  with  infin., 

499  b  ;  dnbiio  an,  579  a. 
Dae,  im|»er.,  227  e. 
Duim,  dnis,  etc.,  241  c. 
Dum,  moods  with,  502  ff. ;  in  clauses 

of  proviso,  504  ;  neduin,  482  d. 
Dnnnnodo,    in    clauses    of    proviso, 

504. 

Duo,  declined,  160;  duUin  for  duo- 
rum,  160  a. 

-dus,  adj.  ending,  283  ;  -ndus,  gerun- 
dive ending,  214. 


E,  sound  of,  16  ;  elided  in  est,  18  h  ; 
euphonic  changes  of,  59,  63  ;  af- 
tinitv  for  r,  59  a  ;  representing  ei, 
38  d  ;  old  dative  in,  ]  33  ( I ),  217 
F  2,  6  F.  1  ;  nom.  and  ace.  plur. 
of  Greek  nouns  in,  98  c;  adverbs 
in,  174,  557  a  ;  e  as  prep.,  430 ; 
quantity  of,  46,  225  ;  parasitic, 64. 

Early  versification,  peculiarities  of, 
635  ff. 

Kcce,  compounded   with   demonstr. 

pron.,  180  b. 
Eafuis,  declension  of,  185  b. 
Ectlipsis,  609  ( I )  c. 
Edim,  edis,  etc.,  247. 
Edo,  conjugated,  247. 
Effien,249  (10)  d. 


Eged,  indiged,  cases  with,  414,  414a. 
Ego,  declined,  178. 
Ei,  diphthong,  7  ;  how  pronounced, 
17  ;  quantity  of  the  e  in  .5th  decl., 
133  (3). 
€t,  how  represented  in  Latin,  38  d, 

38  N. 
-eis,  ending    of    fern,   patronymics, 

277,  278  (2). 
Einsmodl,  etc.,  180/. 
-e/a,  abstract  ending,  274  (I). 
Elegiac  verse,  615. 
■His,  adjec.  ending,  262. 
Elision,  69,  609  (1). 
-eilus,  -fi,   -wn,  diminutive   endings, 

259  (3). 
^m,  ace.  ending  in  3d  decl.,  90  f. 
Emphasis,  as  influenced  by  order  of 
woids  in  the  sentence,  584,  585, 
593  ;  repeated,  599  </  n  2. 
En,  interject  ,  583. 
Enclitics,  35  ;    (juantity   of   enclit. 
])articles,  45  a,  46  f  ;  uses  of  the 
latter  annexed  to  pronouns,  179  b, 
180  c,    186/'.-  q>ie,  562   (2);    ve, 
565  6 ;  ne,  574,  575  6. 
Enivi,    use    of,    571;    position    of, 

590  a. 
-ensis,  ailj.  ending,  279. 
-eutissiimis,  sn])erl.  in,  168. 
-eiius,  adj.  ending,  265. 
Ao,  conju;:ated,  248.  ,      ,«- 

Ed,  etc.,  pronouns  as  adverbs,  187 ; 

with  part.  <ren.,  355  (3). 
•eos,  gen.  ending  of   Greek   nouns, 

98. 
Epicene  nouns,  84. 
Epistolary  use  of  tenses,  470  (l). 
E  mil  urn,  plur.  of,  1.35  (4). 
Eq'ies,  etc.,  used  collectively,  346  a, 

435. 

Equidem,  308  ;  use  of,  572  "• 
J  nou.>s  in,  of  2d  decl.,  95,  97  (  ), 
o)  .  of  3d  decl.,  103  (especiallv 
103  0,  106  ^  108  b:  ad],  in,  of 
2d  decl.,  143,  144,  cf.  145  ;  of  3d 
decl.,  150,  151  ;  superlative  of 
a<lj.   in,    166;    passive   luhn.   in, 

214  F.  ..  „        , 

EruA,  with   ace.    429;    chiefly    of 

persons,    429  6;    meanings    of, 

559(9). 
•ere,  ending  of  perf.  mdic,  213  (ih 

222. 


436 


INDEX. 


Ergo,    use    of,    570;     with     pen., 

404  (3)  b. 
-€s,  quantity  of,  final,  50,  50  (2). 
-es,  -Uis,  noun  ending,  101  c ;  quan- 
tity of,  50  (2). 
-««,  ending  of  Greek  nouns,  94. 
Escit,  215  c. 
£ssp,    conjugated,     215 ;     omitted, 

537;  with  pred.  gen.,  357;  with 

d.it.  of  poj«sessor,  384. 
•fsso   (-/iv»o),  intensive  verb   ending, 

283  (4). 
Et,   use  of,    562   (1);   et  ipse,  etc., 

573  a  ;  connecting  last  two  terms 

of  a  series,  564 />  ;^/  .  .  .  et,  563  ; 

ncijue  .  .  .  et,  565  d. 
Et  non,  571  a. 
Etenim,  571. 
Etiam,  573. 

Etsi,  etiam  si,  moods  with,  478. 
-eluni,  noun  ending,  276  (1). 
£u,  diphthong,  7  ;  sound  of,  17  ;   in 

voc.  sing,  of  Greek  nouns,  98. 
Euphonic    change,   n    before    58 ; 

vowels,  58  ff.  ;  consonants,  65  ff.  ; 

arrangement  of  words,  599  a. 
-eus,    -ens,    adjective    endings,    268, 

268  a. 
-€v-,  perf.  stem  ending,  218  {\)  h. 
Ex  (c),  with  abl.,  430 ;  instead  of 

part,    gen.,   358   (5) ;    meanings, 

561  (G)  ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (5). 
Exchanging,  verbs  of,  cases  with, 

408  6. 
Exclamations,  ace.  in,  400;   nom. 

in,  349;  iiitin.  in,  535. 
Exclamatory  sentences,  315  (3). 
Existence  and  non-existence,  mood 

with  expressions  of,  501  a. 
Exlex,  155  (6) 
Expecting,  verbs   of,  future    infin. 

with,  533  {:)). 
Exsftecidiidne,  as  abl.  after  compara- 
tives, 416  h. 
Exterior,  compared,  170  (2). 
Extra,  with  ace,  429;  meanings  of, 

559  (10). 

Ear,  impor.,  227  e ;  fnc  ut  with  sub- 
jnnc.,  527  d ;  fac  ne,  529  e. 

/'ac//ts,  compar.,  167  ;  facile,  as  ad- 
verb, 174  c. 

Facto,  compounds  of,  246  a,  298  6, 
fid,  as  passive  of,  246. 


Fame,  abl.  ol  fames,  hunger,  115. 
Faviilids,  with  pater,  etc.,  98  c. 
Fari,  conjugated,  249  (6). 
Fas,  indeclinable,  137  (1) ;  with  su- 
pine in  -u,  555. 
Fasti  dies,  660  (G). 
Favor,  etc.,  verb.s  meaning  to,  with 

(hit.,  376. 
Fuxo,  /axim,  faxem,  228  d. 
Fearing,  verbs  of,  with  ut,  ne,  etc., 

492  ;  with  infin.,  492  l>. 
i  Feeling,  verbs  of,  mood  with,  533 
I       (4). 
Feet,  m  poetry,  600;  different  kinds 

of,  602. 
Felix,  declined,  154. 
Fer,  imper.,  227  e. 
Fero,  conjui^ated.  245. 
Festi  dies,  660  (G). 
Festivals,  plural  names  of,  139  (1) ; 

list  of  important,  660  (6)  n  1. 
•ficus_,  adj.  in,  compared,  168  (1). 
Fide,   as    abl.    after    comparatives, 

416  6. 
Fido,  st^mi-deponent,  196  ;  with  abl, 

420  ;  with  dat.,  420  a. 
Figures  of  versification,  609  ff. 
Filia,  dat.  and  abl.  jdural,  93  e. 
Filins,  voc.  sing.,  97  (•'>). 
Filling,   verbs    of,   with  abl.,   409; 

with  gen.,  409  a. 
Final,  clauses  withu/,  etc.,  482  (1) ; 

with  7^1,  etc.,  482  (2);  with  rpio, 

482    (3);    substantive,    484    ff. ; 

syllables,  qnantitv  of,  46  ff. 
Finite  verb,  202  (1). 
Fio,  conjugated,  246. 
First,  decl.  of  nouns.  91  ff. ;  of  adj., 

143  ff.  ;  conjug.,  218  ff.  (especially 

222,  223). 
Flocci,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 
Forem,  fore,  etc,  215,  215c/  fore 

ut,  517  (2),  538  6. 
Foris,  426  (2)  a. 
Fors,  forte,  137  (4). 
Forsitan,  fortassfi,  use  of,  579  6. 
Fractional  expressions,  161  k\ 
Freeing,    verbs   of,  with   abl.,  413 

(1). 
Fremnii,  plur.,  135  (3). 
Frequentative  verbs.  288  (1),  (2)  ; 

double  formations.  288  (3). 
Fretus,  with   abl.,  418  ;    with   dat., 

418  a. 


INDEX. 


437 


Fricatives,  11  a. 
Eiirtus,  declined,  126. 
Fruifi,  comj)ared,  169. 
Frnor,    with    abl.,   419;    with   ace, 
419  a  ;  geruiidive  use  of,  419  a  n, 

550  rt. 
Fiiam,  /f/a.s,  etc.,  215  c. 
Fui,  etc.,  with  perf.  part.,  229  (3). 
Fuugor,  with  abl,  419;  with   ace, 

4i9  a ;  gerundive  use  of,  419  a  N, 

550  a. 
Fwd,  first  person  wanting,  235  v.  f. 
Future,  tense,  461  ;  used  for  imper., 

527    (/;    how    supplied   in    subj  , 

F  before   472 ;    inipeni.,  use    of, 

527  6,  c;  infin.  formation   of,  211 

a ;  used  with  verbs  of  "  hoping," 

etc.,  533  (5)  ;  particip.,  206,  545  ; 

denoting   purpose,    545   a;    with 

sum,  229  (1). 
Future  perfect  tense,  462  (3) ;  old 

iorm  in  -so,  228  d;  frequency  of 

use  of,  471  N. 
Fu'urum   esse,   fuisse,  ut,  with  subj ,  ; 

517  (2),  538  6. 
Fuvimus,  etc.,  215  c. 

G,  sound  of,  18;  euphonic  changes 

of.  66  ii.,  vii.,  69  i.,  ii.  (I),  71. 
(Hlliambic  verse,  657. 
(inudeo,  semi-deponent,  196  a.  ^ 
Gems,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 
Gender,  78  ff. ;  rules  of,  80  ff  ;  nat- 
ural and  grammatical,  79;  in  1st 
decl,  92  ;    in  2d  decl,  95,  96  ;  in 
3d  (led,  118  ff.  ;  in  4th  decl,  126, 
127;   in  5th  decl,  132;    epicene 
nouns,  84;  common, 83;  doubtful, 
83  N. 
(Jener,  declined,  95. 
General,  relatives,  185  ;  conditions, 
477  d :  truths  expressed  by  pres- 
ent, 463  ;  by  perfect,  463  a. 
Genitive,  88  (2)  ;  old  forms,  93  a,  r, 
r/.97(7),128(l),(2),  133  (1),  147 
(3),   180  a  ;  with  nouns,  350  ff. ; 
sul)jective  and  objective,  353;  poss. 
nd).  used  for,  358  (1)  a :  dat.  used 
for,  358  (3);  of  characteristic  or 
quality,  356  ;  of  measure,  423  a  ; 
governing  word  omitted,  353  d,e  ; 
predicate,  357;  two  gen.,  353  c; 
with  causa,  etc.,  404  6 ;  with  opus, 
417   a;    partit.,  354 ;    of    source, 


352  (1);  with  dif/nus,  418  a;  of 
price,  371,  372  ;  with  verbs  of  ac- 
cusing, etc.,  367 ;    of  reminding, 
etc.,  366;    of    pitving,   364   (1); 
niiseret,  etc.,  364  (2)  ;  with  verbs 
of  abundance,  409  a  ;  of  the  pen- 
altv,  367  a ;  of  gerund  and  gerun- 
dive, 548  ff.,  551. 
Genius,  voc.  sing.,  97  (5). 
Gentile  names,  279. 
Geuus,  in  ])hrase  id  genus,  398  6. 
Georgicon,  98  a. 

Gerund,  204  ;  syntax  of,  548  ff. 
Gerundive,  207';  syntax  of,  548 ff.; 
of     ator,    fruor,  'etc.,    550   a;    2d 
periphrastic   conjug.,  229  (2);  to 
express  puri)0se,    551,   552    (2) ; 
neuter  used  impersonally  govern- 
ing a  case,  552  (3). 
Glyconic  verse,  644  ff. 
Glyconic-pherecratic  verse,  648. 
Gm  and  //«  making  preceding  vowel 

long,  41. 
Gnomic  jjcrfect,  463  a. 
-^o,  noun  ending,  272,  273  (3). 
Grammatical  figures,  659. 
Gidtid,  causd,  etc.,  with  gen.,  404  b. 
Greek  ace.  so-called  (synecdochical), 

398  a. 
Greek,  nouns,  n  before  94 ;  1st  decl, 

94;    2d   decl,  98;  3d   decl,  124, 

125  ;  diphthongs,  how  represented 

in  Latin,  38  d  n. 
Grimm's  law,  308  N  2. 
Gutturals,  12  i  f. 

//,  its  nature,  9  a;  no  effect  on 
quantity,  38  a. 
I  //a6co,  with   perf.  part.,  547  c;  fut. 
I       imi)era.  for  present,  527  6. 
'  //«</nVi,  masc.gen.,92. 

Happening,  verbs  of,  with  ut,  etc, 

494  ff. 
Haud,  use  of,  557  g. 
Hair,  conjugated,  249  (10)  a. 
Hemistich,  605  a. 
Hephthemimeris,  605  d. 

Heroic  verse,  614  f. 
Heteroclites,  134  (2),  136. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  134  (1;,  lo&. 
Hexameter  verse,  604,  614. 
Hidtus,  609  (l)  b. 

Hic     declined,    180;    distmguished 
from    iste,  iile,    etc,   181;   other 


438 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


439 


uses  of,  447,  450 ;  hie,  as  adverb, 

187. 
Hidden  quantities,  37  n  2. 
Hitmps,  70,  101  F. 
Him,   her,    etc.,    how   expressed  in 

Latin,  179  a,  447. 
Hipponactean  verse,  650. 
Hindering,  verbs  of,  case  with,  413  ; 

ni(X)ds  with,  493  (2). 
Historical  tenses,  2()0  (2) ;  present, 

466;  perfect,  199   6,   462   (1)  b; 

infinitive,  530  a. 
Honor,  declined,  107. 
Hoping,   verbs    of,   tense  of    infin. 

with,  533  (.5). 
Horace,  meters  of,  645  ff. 
Hortatory,   sentences,    315    (4)    a ; 

subj.,  472. 
Humi,  lac,  426  a. 
i/«/*<5,  as  genitive  of  price,  372  a; 

huius  modi,  180y*. 
Hypercatalectic  verse,  605  c. 
Hyperraeter,  605  c. 
Hypothetical  sentences.    See  Condi- 
tional sentences. 

/,  used  as  both  vowel  and  conso- 
nant, 3  b;  vowel  sound  of,  16; 
consonant  sound  of,  18 ;  represent- 
ing «i,  38  r/  n;  dropped,  63,69 
(4) ;  i  for  ii,  3  /,  97  (4) ;  quantitv 
of,  38  (1),  (2),  46,  225;  i-  stems'. 
108,  150  R. ;  tendency  of  adj.  to 
pass  into,  260  f  1  ;  in  abl.  sing,  of 
3d  ded.,  114;  inserted  in  certain 
present  stems,  230/,-  effect  of  con- 
sonant I  on  quantity  of  preceding 
vowel,  41 ;  -m,  abstract  ending, 
273  (1). 

lacto,  compounds  of,  3/,  299  a. 

•iacus,  adj.  ending,  268. 

Iambic  verse,  623  ff. ;  iambico-dac- 
tylic  verse,  654  (2),  (.3);  iambic 
strophe,  653. 

lamdudum,  with  pres.  and  iraperf., 
487. 

'ias,  fein.  patronym.  ending,  278  (3). 

•Ibam,  for  liham,  in  4th  conj.,  227  c. 

Ibidem,  308. 

•ibo,  fut,  ending  in  4th  conj.,  227^. 

-iciixs,  icius,  adjective  endings,  268. 

Ictus,  606. 

Id,  as  antecedent,  450  (3) ;  id  genus, 
id  temporis,  etc.,  398  b. 


Idem,  declined,  182 ;  idem  and  isdem 
as  uom.  plur.,  182  a. 

Ides  of  the  month,  660  (4). 

-ides,  -ides,  -i<idh,  patronymic  end- 
ings, 277,  278. 

lecur,  declension  of,  111  (4). 

-itr,  passive  intin.  ending,  214  f. 

'ies,  ending  of  numeral  adverbs, 
156  (4),  292  (1);  nouns  of  oih 
decl.  in,  133  a. 

lesus,  98  d. 

Igitur,  use  of,  570;  position  of, 
570  rt,  590  a. 

-i7,  noun  ending,  262  a. 

•lie,  noun  ending,  276  (3). 

-ilis,  adj.  ending,  262. 

lUative  i)articles,  570. 

lUe,  declined,  180;  distinguished 
from  hXc,  iste,  etc.,  181 ;  other  uses 
of,  447,  450. 

Il/iiismodi,  180/ 

-Hid,  diminutive  verb  ending,  291. 

-ilhts,  -a,  -urn,  diminutive  endings, 
259  (3). 

•im,  ace.  ending  in  3d  decl,  113 ; 
in  pres.  subj.,  215,  216.  241  c, 
242  ff.  ;    adverbs  in,  557  b. 

Imbecillus,  155  (7). 

I  mind,  use  of,  582  h. 

Imperative,  mood,  198  (3);  sen- 
tences, 315  (4);  endiiiL'^s  of, 
213  (3);  use  of,  527;  subj.  for, 
472,  515  (3).  529. 

Imperfect  tense,  461 ;  continued  or 
custom,  action,  464;  opistolarv, 
470  ( I )  ;  other  uses,  470  (3),  (4J ; 
of  oportet,  etc.,  474  d,  477  c. 

Imf)ei-6,  constr.  with,  487,  489  (4). 

Impersonal  verbs,  250,  318;  pas- 
sive use  of  intransitive.",  194, 
318  (3),  387  ;  clause  as  subject  of, 
318  (4),  rt. 

Impetus,  declined,  137  (4). 

Impure  syllables.  25  n  2. 

-i//<Ms,  ending  of  temporal  adj., 
286  (.3). 

In-,  neg.  prefix,  295  n,  299,  300  N, 
301  (6)  a. 

In,  prep,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431  ; 
meanings  of.  660  (1 )  ;  with  names 
of  towns,  427 ;  with  words  in  app. 
with  a  locative,  426 A;  form  in 
comp..  301  (6). 

Ina,  noun  ending,  276  (2). 


Inceptive  or  inchoative  verbs,  289  ; 
quantity   of   vowel   before   sc  in, 

237  rt.  .     ^, 

Incomplete  actions,  tenses  of,  461. 

lude,  enclitic,  35  b. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  137  (1 ) ;  adjec, 
155(5).  I 

Indefinite  pronouns,  177  (b)  ;   ue-  ^ 
clension  of,  183  ff.  ;  order  of  deh- 
niieness,  185  d;  uses  of,  454  ff  ; 
subject  omitted,  317  (2),  (3)  ;  you 
=  anv    one,    472  a,    477  d   (I), 

529  (1 )  b. 

Independent  clauses,  314  ( 1 ;. 

Indicative  mood.  197,  198  (1)  ;  in 
apodosis  of  conditions  contrary  to 
fact,  477  c. 

Indujto,  cases  with,  414,  414  a. 

Judi'fiius.     See  Dhjnus. 

Indirect  discourse,  514 ff.;  use  of 
tenses  in,  516,  524,  525  ;  (luestions, 
518;  indicative  in  early  Latm, 
518  c;  with  si,  518  d;  distin- 
guished from  relative  clauses,  ^ 
518  e   N  ;    reflexive,   445    (2)   6,  , 

448  (2).  I 

Indno,  in  middle  voice,  193  rt. 
-hie,  -ionc,  fern.  ])atronym.  endings, 

277  /» 
/n/>r/ar,' compared,  170  (2) ;  followed 

bv  dative  or  by  (piam,  with  abl.,  ^ 
416  r.  \ 

Infinitive.  197  n,  203 ;  as  noun 
and  verb,  v  before  530 ;  aft  sub- 
ject. 531  ;  as  object,  533  ;  as  pred. 
uom  ,  531  6  ;  complementary, 
532  ;  use  of  tenses  of,  538,  539  ; 
subject  of,  530;  historical  use, 
530  n ;  in  ii>direct  discourse, 
515  ff.  ;  in  exclam.,  535  ;  poetical 
with  adj.,  536 «;  dinotmg  pur- 
inm>,  536;  with  prep.,  536  b; 
perf.  for  present,  539  a,  b  ; 
omitted,  537. 

//////,  249  (10)  d. 

Inflection.  2  ii.,  54  ff. 

hfa,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (II) 

Itiiiio,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  h. 

Jniuria,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 

Imtitor,  with  abl  .  420. 

Inquam,  conjugated,  249  (5)  ;  use  of, 

_  516  b. 

Instar,  iudcclin.  noun,  137  (!)• 


Instrument,  abl.  of,  407. 
Instrumental  case,  88  6. 
Insuesco,  cases  with,  421. 
Intensive   pronouns,    177  (3) ;  de- 
clined, 182  ;  use  of,  448  ff . ;  verbs, 
288. 
Intention,   denoted  by   fut.    part., 

545  a. 
IntfT,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (rj);  inter   se,  etc.,  for  reci- 
procal relations,  449  (1). 
Intircd  loci,  355  (5),  a. 
Intaest,  with  gen.,  368 ;  with  mea, 

tud,  etc.,  369. 
luitiifieii,  iiiterfiat,  249  (10)  (i. 
Interior,  compared,  170  (2). 
Interim,  position  of,  590  a. 
Interjections,  74  (8) ;  list  of,  583 ; 
use  of,  583  a  ;  with  uom.,  349  (1) 
a  :  with  dat.,  391  (.3)  ;  with  ace, 
400;    with  voc-  ,  402  a,  b;  6,  not 
elided,  609  { I )  «. 
Interrogative   sentences,  315  (2) ; 
particles,      574    ff.  ;      pronouns, 
177    (5);    declined,   183  ff. ;    as 
connectives,  591. 
Intra,   with    ace,    429;    meanings, 
559  (13).  , 

Intransitive  verbs,  191 ;  impersonal 
use  of  i.i  pass.,  194,  318  (3),  387. 
■inus,  adj   ending,  265. 
Involuntary  aL'eiit.  407  a. 
-id,  noun  ending,  274  (2);  verbs  m, 
230   f;    (luantity   of   their    root- 
vowel,  52. 
locus,  plur.  of,  135  (1). 
Ionic  verse,  633,  634.  ^  .„v  . 

Ipse,  declined,  182  ;  use  of,  445  (2),  6, 
448,  449  (1 )  ;  inter  ipsos,  449  (I )  ; 
in  i)eculiar  apposition,  325  e. 
Iri,  use  of,  with  supine  to  form  fut. 

pass.  inHn.,  211",  554  (1). 
Irrational  feet,  618  ( 1 ),  643  a. 
Irregular  verbs.  239  ff. 
-is,    quantity    of.    final.    50;    fern, 
patronvm.  ending,  2'}8(l);;w,  in 

Gentile  adj.,  279;  plur.  ending  m 
nouns  of  3d  decl.,  117;  m  adj., 
155  (4) ;  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of 
Greek   nouns  of  3d   decl.   m  -o, 

125  (4).  ,     . 

Is,  declined,  180;  as  antecedent, 
450  (3) ;  for  3d  pers.  pron.,  179  a, 
447. 


\ 


440 


INDEX. 


Islands,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. ; 

loc;itive  use  of  names  of,  426. 
'isso,  iniensive  verb  ending,  288  (4). 
Iste,   declined,    180;    distinguished 

from  /nc,  i/le,  etc.,  181  (3)  ;  other 

uses  of,  447,  450. 
Istlc,  declined,  180  e. 
Jstiusmodi,  180y. 
Jta,  u.se  of,  557  d,  e. 
Itaquf,  use  of,  570. 
■iter,  adverbs  in,  174,  175,  557  a. 
Iterative  verijs,  288  a. 
•ito,    frequentative     verb     ending, 

288  (2). 
'itus,  adverbs  in,  292  (3). 
•itus,  adjective  ending,  280. 
'ium,  noun  ending,  273  ( I )  ;  ending 

of    gen.    phir.    in    3d   declension 

nouns,  109  ff. ;  adj.,  150  ff. 
lure,  as  abl.  of  manuer,  410  (2). 
-ins,  adjective  ending,  268,  279. 
-IMS,  gen.  sing,  ending.  146. 
lubeo,  moods  with,  489  (4),  533  (3). 
Juppiter,  declension  of,  111  (3). 
Jurdtus,  active  sense  of,  206  a. 
Jus  luiandum,  apparent  compound, 

300  a. 
lussu,  137  (4)  a. 
Jusfo,  after  comparatives,  416 &. 
luio,  ense  with,  376  a. 
Juxta,  with  ace,  420 ;  meanings  of, 

669  (14). 
Avu8,  adj.  ending,  283. 

K,  early  disappearance  of,  3  c. 

Kalends  of  the  month,  660  (4). 

Kindred,  constructions  with  app , 
326  ;  with  pred.  nonn,  331  ;  Mith 
certain  gen.,  358,  362  ;  words  in 
Latin  and  English,  308  n  (1); 
consonants  interchanged,  71. 

Knowing,  verbs  of,  moods  with, 
533  (1). 

L,  euphonic  changes  of,  71,  72. 

Labials,  12  iii. 

Jmi',  nom.  formation,  103  6. 

Lampas,  declined,  124. 

Lapis,  declined,  102. 

Last  place   in    sentence   seemingly 

emphatic,  599  (/. 
Latin  grammar,  defined,  1 ;  divisions 

of,  2. 
Letters,  division  of,  4  ff. ;  sounds  of. 


15  ff  ;  representing  numerals, 
162 ;  as  abbreviations  of  prae- 
nomina,  666  d. 

LU'ft,  injpers.,  250  a. 

Lihio,  without  prep.,  426  d. 

Licet,  impei-sonal  verb,  250  a;  case 
of  predicate  word  with,  531  c; 
indie,  in  conditions  contmry  to 
fact,  477  c  (ef.  474  d) ;  as 'con- 
junction meaning  *'  although,"  480 
(I),  480  N. 

■limu^,  snperl.  in,  167. 

Lmguals,  12  ii.  f. 

Liquet,  ini]>ers.,  250  a. 

Liquids,  10  (I)  ;  liquid  stems,  101, 
103,  104. 

'lis,  adj.  ending,  260. 

Locative  case,  88  a ;  in  1st  dec!., 
93 ;  in  2d  dccl.,  97  (3) ;  in  3d 
decl.,  112  ;  domui  beside  domi, 
130  a,  426  (2)  a;  of  names  of 
towns,  etc.,  426  (2)  ;  absorbed  by 
ablative,  403  f  ;  animi  with  verbs 
and  adj.,  426  (2)  h. 

Locnjt/es,  gen.  jilur.  of,  155  (3)  a. 

Locus,  })liir.  of.  135  (1)  ;  as  abl.  of 
place,  426  (2)  c;  with  gen.  in- 
stead of  pred.  noun,  331  (3) ; 
intcrta  loci,  etc,  355  ("i)  a. 

Logacedic  vers^e,  643,  644. 

Lotiqius,  with  or  wiiiiout  quam, 
416  c. 

Ludis,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

•lus,  -la.  -hiiii,  nom.  and  adj.  ending, 
257  ff.  ;  dimin.,  259  ff. 

M,  feeble  pronunciation  when  final, 

18  d ;   elision    in    verse,  609(1); 

euphonic  change  of,  66  v. 
Mdctus,  vidcte,  155  (ti). 
Magis  and    n.dxime,    uses    to   form 

compar.  and  snperl.,  173. 
Afdgnus,  compared,  169  ;  as  gen.  of 

price,  372  ;  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 
Making,  etc.,  verbs  of,  with  two  ace, 

394  (1). 
3/ d/d,  conjugated,  244;  mdlim,  mdl- 

lein,   in    expressions    of    wishing, 

473  c,  491,  527    d  ;    mood  with, 

487,  489  ff. 
Malus,  compared,  169. 
Afdne,  137  (l). 
Manner,  abl.  of,  410 ;    adverbs  of, 

567  a  (also  n  2),  557  d. 


INDEX. 


441 


Masculine,  gender,  78.  80  ;  caesura, 
608  b ;  adj.  used  as  nouns,  438  (1), 

(2). 
Material,  nouns,  76  iv.  ;  adj.,  268; 

abl.  of,  405  c. 
May,  how  expressed  in  Latm,  474, 

474  d. 
M>d,  tud,  etc.,  with  re/ert  and  interest, 

369. 
Means,  al)l.    of,   407;    persons   re- 
garded as,  407  a. 
Measure(s),   ace.   of,    423   a ;    ex-  ! 
])ressed   bv  gen.  of   charac,  356,  : 
423  a  ;  abl.  of,  415  ;  Roman  tables 
of,  665  (cf.  also  682). 
md,  for  me,  179  d. 
Meditative  verbs,  288  a. 
Medial  vowels,  5  F  2. 
Mrdins,  use  to  denote  "  middle  of," 

442. 
Meiniul,  conjugated,  249  (2);  perf. 
as  pros.,  471  a  ;  use  of  imiierative, 
527 />;  with  gen,  385  ;  with  ace, 
365   a,   b;   tense   of   infin.    with, 
538  a. 
•mm,  -menlum,  \\om\  endings,  275. 
Mens,    gen.    with    in    inentcin    vend, 

353  d. 
-mrt,  enclitic  .suffix  attached  to  pron., 

179  b,  186  (2)  l>. 
Metre(s),  600 ;  kinds  of.  603  ;  dac- 
tylic, 614  ff. ;  iambic,  618,  623  ff. ; 
trochaic,  618  ff. ;  anapae-tic,  630  ; 
logaoedic,  643  ff. ;   elegiac,  615  ; 
Ionic,    633,    634;    bacchiac    and 
cretic,  631 ;    Sapphic,  646 ;  Ado- 
nic, 644;  choriainbic,  632  ;  choli- 
ambic,  628 ;   Alcaic.  647 ;  Asele- 
piadean,  645  ;    Saturnian,    642  ; 
Galliambic,  657  ;  Phal.iecian,  649 ; 
miscellaneous,  650  ff. ;  of  Horace 
and  Catullus,  645  ff 
Mrtathesis,  72,  659  (20). 
Metrical  accent,  6D6. 
Mtiuere,    cases    with,    378;     moods 

with,  492,  492  b. 
Mfus,  186. 
Ml,  for  mihi,  179  d;  as  voc.  of  mens, 

186  (2). 
MiddlQ  voice,  193  a,b;  with  ace, 

395. 
Mile,  Roman,  665  (I). 
Miles,  declined,    102;   used    collec- 
tively, 346  (1)  a,  435. 


Militiae,  as  loc,  426  a. 

Mille,  declension   of,   160;   use  of, 

161  g,  h. 
Million,    how   expressed   in  Latin, 

161  Ii ;  a  million  sesterces,  663  n  3. 
-jjiini,  ending  of   2d   person   plural, 

213,  214. 
-mnjo,  old  imperative  ending,  227/ 
Minus,  \\'\l\\  or  without  quam,  416c; 

with  minime,  to  indicate  inferior 

degree  of  a  quality,  164  d ;  mini- 

me  used  for  "  no,"' 582  a  ;  as  gen. 

of   price,  372;    as  abl.  of   price, 

408  a. 
Mir  or,  conjugated,  223. 
Mirum  quam  or  quantum,  518  6. 
Misereor,     miseresco,     miseret,    with 

gen.,  etc.,  364. 
Miseror,  with  ace,  365  a. 
Mi^sum  facio,  547  c,  examples. 
MVis,    declined,    152  ;    compared, 

165. 

Mixed  conjugation  of  various  verbs, 

226.  , 

Model dil,  with  ace  and  dat.  \i\  din. 

sense-^,  378. 
-modi,  annexed  to  pronouns,  180  /, 

185  a. 
Modd,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Modd,  ''provided  that,"  with  subj  , 

504  ;    uou    modd,   etc.,   563    (2)  ; 

modd  .  .  .  modd,  563  (1)6. 
Moned,  conjn-ated,  222,  223  ;  cases 

with,    366,   367   c;  moods   with, 

487,  490. 
Money,  Roman,  662,  663. 
Monometer,  604. 
Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  45,  47 

ff. ;    regarded    as    accented,    31; 

certain  not  elided,  609  (1)  a.    _^ 
Months,  gender  of  names  of,  80u.; 

division  of,  660  (4). 
Mood  and  tense  signs.  224. 
Moods,  197  ;  use  of  indie  ,  198  (1 ) ; 

use  of  subj.,  198  (2).  472  ff;  use 

ofimpera..  198(.3).527if  ;  mfin. 

someiimes  rey:arded  as,  197  N. 
Mora,  26  a,  601. 
Mdre,  as  al)l.  of  manner.  410  (2). 
Morior,  irreg.  infin.  of,  227  {>. 
Motion,  ace  of,  425,  426;  impbed, 

426/;  verbs  of,  case  with,  .37/ 

(3) ;   with  supine  to  denote  pur- 
pose, 554  (2). 


442 


INDEX. 


Multiplicatives,  286  (1). 

MuUdre,  constr.  with,  367  h. 

Multus,  compared,  169  ;  multum  and 
mullo,  as  adverbs,  557  6,  c  ,■  mulii 
as  gen.  of  price,  372. 

Muitijicns,  compared,  168  a. 

-mus,  adjective  endinu:,  282. 

Mutes,  9  ii. ;  divisions  of,  11,  12; 
mute  and  liquid  producing  com- 
mon quantity  of  preceding  vowel, 
29  ;  but  not  in  early  versilication, 
641  b. 

Mute  stems,  101,  103. 

AJuto,  cases  with,  408  6. 

N,  before  palatals,  18  c :  before  8, 
18  e ;  euphonic  changes  of,  6G  vi., 
69  (3) ;  inserted  in  the  present  stem 
of  certain  verba,  230  d. 

Nam,  navique,  etc.,  571. 

Names,  of  persons,  277,  278,  666; 
of  nations,  279. 

Nasals,  10  i. 

Aa/u,  137  (4)  a. 

Ndtus,  with  abl.,  405. 

Nauci,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Nd  and  vt,  making  preceding  vowel 
short,  42. 

-r?^,  enclitic,  35  a  ;  uses  of,  574  ft. 

Ne,  negative,  557  .7;  quantity  of  its 
compounds,  307  ;  with  imperative, 
527  a  ;  with  hortatory  subiunctive, 
472;  in  wishes.  473;  vednin,  482 
d;  ne  non,  492;  in  clauses  of 
purpose,  482  (I) ;  of  intended  ob- 
ject, 483  6;  with  qnidem,  bQ2  {1) 
6,572  h;  as  affirmative  particle, 
583  c. 

Nee  .  .  .  et  iqiif),  565  d ;  n€cn(>,  581 ; 
nvque  rather  than  et  non,  571  a. 

Necessdrio,  after  comp:jratives,  416 
6. 

Nednm,  with  subj..  482  d. 

Nejas,  indeclin.,  137  (1);  with  8U- 
])ine  in  -ii,  555. 

Nejdsfi  dies,  660  (6). 

Negatives,  557  g ;  nee  ullus,  etc., 
for  et  nuHus,  etc  ,  571  a. 

Nemo,  declension  of,  137  (3). 

Neqna  rather  than  nequae,  185  6,  c. 

Neqnam,   indeclin.,   155    (5)  ;    com- 
pared, 169. 
Nequed,  conjugated,  249  (8). 
Ne  .  .  .  qnidem,  563  a,  6,  572  6. 


Nequis,  declension  of,  185  c. 
Nescid  an,  579  a ;  nescto  quis,  etc., 

518  a. 
Neuter,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  use 

of,  460. 
Neuter,  nouns,  of  2d  decl.,  95  ff. ; 

of  3d  decl.,  103  ff.,  118  ff.;  adj. 

and    pron.    with   part,    gen.,  355 

(5) ;  pron.    as   ace.  of   spec,  398 

b;  verbs  (see  Intransitive). 
Net-e  or  neu,  after  ut  or  ue,  482  (1); 

with  impera.,  527  a. 
NihU  and  nihilum,  137  (1)  a;  nlhill, 

as  gen.  of  price,  372   a;   nihilo, 

as  al)l.  of  ])rKe,  408  a. 
Nimlum  quantum,  518  6. 
N 


isi,  308. 


Nitor,  with  abl.,  420. 

Nix,  stem,  101  d. 

No,  how  expres.»<ed,  582. 

Nolo,  conjugated,  243  ;  ndll,  with 
iiifin.  for  j)rohil)itions,  529  c;  no- 
lim,  nollem,  in  expressions  of  wish- 
iiii:,  473  c,  491,  527  d;  mood  with, 
489  ff. 

No  men  est  mihi,  326  a. 

Nominative  case,  88  (I) ;  formation 
in  .3(1  decl.,  100  ff. ;  as  subject, 
316;  other  uses,  349  ;  with  opus, 
417  a. 

Non,  etc. ,  557  fj ;  omitted  after  non 
niodo,  563  (2)  b ;  non  modS  .  .  .  sed 
etiam,  etc.,  563  ("J) ;  non  quo,  nan 
qnin,  etc  ,  521  ;  tion  dubito,  499 
a,  b. 

Nones  of  the  month,  660  (4). 

Nonnp,  bib. 

Non,  for  ei/d,  443. 

Noster,  declined,  186  (2). 

Nostras,  declined,  188  a. 

Nostri  and  nostrum,  use  of,  178  F. 

Not  and  nor,  how  e.xpressed  in  pur- 
pose clauses,  etc.,  482  (1),  527  a- 

Nouns,  74  (1);  cla.sses  of,  75,  76; 
defective,  134  (3),  137  ff. ;  sinir. 
and  plur.  in  diff.  meanings,  140; 
hetcnxdite.  134  (2),  136;  hetero- 
geneous. 134  (1).  135  ;  derivation 
of,  254  ff.  ;  peculiarities  in  uses 
of,  432  ff. 

-ns,  particip.  and  adj.  ending,  154; 
constr.  with  partic.  in.  361  ;  mak- 
ing long  quantity  of  preceding 
vowel,  41. 


/ 


INDEX. 


443 


NuJ>o,  with  dat.,  381  a. 

NfiUus,  decl.  of,  145,  146 ;  supply- 
ing cases  of  nemo,  137  (3) ;  for 
non  alius,  etc.,  455  a. 

Num,  576,  579. 

Number,  in  nouns,  85 ;  in  verbs, 
201  ;  of  verb  with  collective 
noun,  346  ( 1 ) ;  with  two  or  more 
noun.s,  319  ff. 

Numerals,  156  ff. ;  cardinal,  157 
(1) ;  ordinal,  157  (2) ;  distributive, 
157  ("i)  ;  placed  in  rel.  clause,  341 
c ;  letters  for,  162 ;  adverbs,  157 
(4);  multiplicative,  286  (1);  pro- 
portional, 286  (2) ;  temporal,  286 
(3). 

Nummus,  663. 

Numquis,  185  h. 

Nundinae,  135  (4);  quantity  of  -u, 
42  a  ;  -nus,  adj.  ending,  263  ff ., 
279,  282;  in  adj.  of  time,  264; 
in  distributives,  265  b. 

0,  sound  of,  16 ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  59  ff.;  quantity  of  final,  46; 
retained  after  ?'  and  u,  59  b,  c;  as 
interjection,  583  ;  as  noun  ending, 
103  c,  271  (1). 

Oaths,  583  b. 

06,  with  ace,  429;  meanings,  559 
(15) ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (7). 

Object,  direct,  392  fL  ;  indirect,  373, 
374. 

Objective  genitive,  353  (2). 

Oblique  cases,  88  c. 

OUiviscor,  with  gen.,  etc.,  365. 

Orior,  compared,  170  (3). 

Ortoudrius,  iambic,  626;  trochaic, 
621. 

6di,  conjugated,  249  (1). 

Of-,  <liph"thong,  7  ;  how  pronounced, 
_17. 

0//e,  interjecticm,  583;  quantity  of, 
38  (2). 

Oi,  old  diphtlKmg,  7  a;  how  pro- 
nounced, 17. 

■olens,    -olentus,    adjective     endings, 

285. 
Ollus,  for  iUe,  180  a. 
•ohis,  -a,   -urn,  diminutive    endings, 

259(1). 
-om  (^/n),  for  -urn,  -urn,  97  (7). 
-on,  Greek  noun  ending,  98. 
•on,  for  -^/rum,  98  a. 


Open  syllables,  25   n   3 ;  vowels,  5 


F  2. 

Opinlone,  after  comparatives,  416  6. 

Oportet,   impersonal,   250  a;  indie. 

in  contrary  to  fact  conditions,  477 

c  (cf.  474  d). 

Oppidum,  in   app.   with   names    of 

towns,  426  g,  h. 
\Ops],  decline'd.  137  (4). 
Optative  subjunctive,  473. 
Opus,  work,  declined,  107. 
Opus,   need,   with    abl.,   417;    with 
other  cases,  417  a ;  with  supine  in 
-u,  555. 
-or,  noun  ending,  255  (2). 
Ordlio  obliqua,  514t  ff. ;    tenses  in, 

525. 
Order  of  words.  584  ff. 
Ordinal  numbers,  157   (2);  in  ex- 
pressions of  time,  161  i. 
Origin,    participles    of,    with    abl., 
405  ;  denoted  by  gentile  adjectives, 
279 ;  by  ])atrials,  188. 
Orior,  ineg.  forms  of,  227  a. 
Orpheus,  declined,  98. 
Oro,  with  two  ace,  394  (2) ;  moods 

with,  486. 
•OS,  quantity  of  final,  50;  for  -us  in 

second  decl.,  59  6,  c,  95. 
■OS,  noun  ending,  106  a,  255  (2). 
Oos;  derivatives  from,  255  n. 
Vs  (ossis),  declension  of,  110. 
-osus,  adj.  ending,  285. 
Ou,  old  diphthong,  7  a. 
Ovat,  conjugated,  249  (10)  c. 

P,  euphonic  changes  of,  66  iii.,  vi.; 
parasitic,  70. 

Pace,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  6. 

Paenitd,  inipers.,  250  a;  with  gen., 
etc.,  364  (2),  365  6. 

Palatals,  12  j. 

PanthUs,  voc.  of,  98  c. 

Paradigms,  of  nouns,  1st  deck,  91 ; 
oj  deck.  95;  3d  deck,  cons, 
htems,  102,  104,  107;  i- stems 
109;  peculiar  nouns,  110;  4th 
decl  126;  5th  deck,  132;  Greek 
noun's,  1st  deck,  94  ;  2d  deck,  98; 
3d  deck,  124;  adject.,  1st  and  2d 
decl.  143,  146 ;  3d  deck  of  three 
endings,  150;  of  two  endings, 
152;  of  one  ending,  154;  pers. 
pron.,  178;  demons,  pron.,  180; 


444 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


445 


•  r3l.,  interro^.,  indef.  pron.,  184, 
185;  iurensive  pron.,  182;  ])os- 
ses^ive  pron.,  186;  patrials,  188; 
sum,  215;  })ossiim,  216;  re<;ular 
verbs,  222,  223;  irreg.  (uuthe- 
matit)  verbs,  239  £f . ;  defective 
verbs,  249. 

Parasitic,  vowels,  64 ;  consonants, 
70,^01  d. 

Pardtiis,  with  infin.,  536  (2). 

Paroemiac  verse,  630  (4), 

Pars,  use  of,  in  fractional  expres- 
sions, 161  ^-:  in  abl.  of  place  with- 
out prep.,  426  c. 

Participles,  uses  of,  542  fl.  ;  as  ad- 
jectives, 546;  with  pen.  or  ace, 
361  ;  i)crf.  part,  with  sum,  229 
(3);  with  halted,  547  c;  future 
part,  with  sum,  229  (1) :  i  or  e  in 
abl.  of  pres.  part.,  155  (2) ;  of  de- 
pon.  verbs,  206  a,  544  a,  b  :  a^j^ree- 
n»ent  of,  with  app.  or  pred.  noun, 
341  ;  in  abl.  absol.,  422,  422  d  ,- 
used  for  clauses,  547 ;  denoting 
origin,  405  ;  for  English  nouns  in 
"  ing,"  547  b. 

Particles,  73,  562  ff. 

Partitive  genitive,  354,  355  ;  appo- 
sition, 325  c. 

Parts  of  speech,  73  ff. 

Parvos  (-Ks),  compared,  169;  pnrci, 
as  gen.  of  price,  372  ;  pared,  as 
abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

Passive  voice,  193  (3)  ;  impersonal 
of  in  trans,  verbs,  194,  387 ;  sec- 
ond accusative  retained  in,  394 
(2)  c. 

Pater,  declined,  104;  famxhds,  93  c. 

Patrial  pronouns,  177   (8),  188. 

Patronymics,  277,  278. 

Pecuniae,  as  genitive  of  penalty, 
367  a. 

Pelero,  69  (5),  301  (8). 

Pelagus,  gender  of,  96  (2)  ;  plur.  of, 
98  c. 

Penalty,  how  expressed,  367  a,  b. 

Penes,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (16). 

Pensi,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Penthemimeris,  as  part  of  a  verse, 
605  d;  as  a  caesura,  608  6. 

Penult(s),  25  n  (1);  quantity  of, 
certain,  51. 

Per,  with   ace,  429  ;  meanings  of. 


559(17);  form  incomp.,  301  (8); 
intensive  force  in  comp.,  295  n. 

Perceiving,  verbs  of,  mood  with, 
533  (1) ;  with  pres.  part.,  543  6. 

Perduim,  etc.,  241  c. 

Perfect  stem,  208,  210 ;  formation 
in  3d  conj.,  231  ;  in  other  conj., 
218 ;  V  omitted  in  parts  from, 
228. 

Perfect,  tense,  199,  462  ;  historical 
and  perf.  def.,  462  (1) ;  old  subj. 
form  in  -sim,  228  d;  (pian- 
titv  of  dissvUabic  iKrfccts,  51  ; 
"  gnomic,"  463  a  ,•  with  postquam, 
etc.,  469  ;  otherwise,  470  ff.,  471; 
distinction  betw.  perf.  and  ])res.  of 
the  subj.  ill  certain  uses,  472  c, 
473  a,  476  (2)  b,  481  a,  482  b, 
626  ;  subj.  for  impera.,  472  6,  529 
(1)  a  ;  intin.,  bow  used,  538,  539; 
participle,  544  ;  witii  }iab<6,  547 
c;  of  dep.  verbs,  544  a,  b ;  active 
meaning  in  certain  otiier  verbi?, 
206  a,  249  (1)  ;  for  pluperfect, 
469 ;  perfect  participle  stem,  208, 
211. 

Period,  594  ff.  ;  difference  bet. 
periodic  and  non-periodic  sentence, 
596  a. 

Periphrastic  conjugations,  229. 

Perntaijnu,  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

Pernox,  155  (G). 

Personal,  pronouns,  177  (I),  178; 
omission  of,  316  a,  317  ;  plur.  for 
sing,  in  l.st  person.  443 ;  3d,  sup- 
plied by  demonstr  ,  447  ;  endings 
of  the  verb,  213. 

Person,  of  verits,  201 ;  of  the  im- 
perative, 201  a;  second  used  in- 
definitely, 472  a,  474  c,  477  </  ( D, 
529  6;  of  verb,  with  subj.  of  diff. 
pers.,  322 ;  of  verb,  a  rel.  clause, 
323. 

P^-to,  cases  with,  394  (2)  a. 

Ph,  11  iii.  f;  sound  of,  18  ^r. 

Phalaecian  verse,  649. 

Pherecratic  verse,  644,  648. 

Phonetic  decay,  n  before  58. 

Phrases,  314  b ;  order  of  words  in, 
586  ff. 

Pirjer,  declined,  143. 

Pi(]et,  impersonal,  250  a;  with  gen., 
etc.,  364  (2),  365  6. 

PiR,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 


place,  constructions  of,  425  ff. ;  cer- 
tain   distinctions    in,    page    359, 

note.  «  oi  •• 

Plants,  gender  of  names  of,  81  u. 

iHebcs  and  }debs,  133  a  F. 

Plenty,  abl.  of,  409. 

Plenus,  with  abl.  or  gen.,  409,  409  a. 

.plex,  multiplicative  ending,  286  (1 ). 

Pluperfect  tense,  462  (2)  ;  old  subj> 

form  in  -sem,  228  d ;    epistolary, 

470(1). 
Plural,  number,  86;  nouns  lackuig, 

138 ;    nouns   used    only  in,  139 ; 

list  of  nouns  with  diff.  meaning  in 

sing,  and  plur.,  140;  plur.  of  diff. 

gender  from  sing.,  135  ;  used  for 

sint:.,  437;  nos  for  ego,  443;   of 

verbs  or  adj.,  with  collective  nouns, 

etc.,  346  ff.  ;   of  abstract  nouns, 

437  (3). 
Plur'mi,  as  gen.  of  price,  372;  pin- 

rimo,  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 
-plus,  proportional  adjective  ending, 

286  (2). 
Plus,  declined,  153  ;  compared,  169  ; 

with  or  without  f/uam,  416  c,-  as 

gen.  of  price,  372. 
Poematis,  nom.,  103/;  dat.  and  abl. 

plur.,  125  (4). 
Po;*f/o,  indecl.,  137  (1). 
Pdnr,  with  acc,  429  ;  meanings  of, 

559  (18). 

Pond,  with  abl.  and  in,  431  r. 

Posed,  with  two  acc,  394  (2); 
quantity  of  the  first  o,  237  a. 

Position,  quantity  by,  28,  29;  m 
earlv  verse,  609  (1)  d,  641  b;  em- 
phasis affected  by,  584  ff. 

Positive  degree,  164  (1). 

Possessive,  pronouns,  177  (7),  186; 
used   for  gen.   of   personals,  358 
(2) ;  in  appos.  with  a  genitive,  347 
(2)  ;  with  refert  and  interest,  369 ; 
omission  of ,444 ;  position  of,  444, 
587  ;  compounds,  295  a. 
Possum,  conjugated,  216;  indie,  in 
contrary  to    fact  conditions,  477 
c  (cf.  474  d)  ;   possum  for  possem, 
474  d  N  ;   ndn  possum  quin,  etc., 
499  a. 
Post,  with  acc,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (19)  ;  as  adv.  with  abl.  in  ex- 
pressions of  time,  559  (19),  (3)  f; 
case  with  comp.  of,  377. 


Postquam,  moods  with,  506,  508 
N  2  ;  preference  for  perf.  tense, 
469 


Posterior,  compared,  170  (2). 
Postridie,  with  gen.,  355  (5)  6 ;  with 

qiiam,  507. 
Pdstuld,  case  with,  394  (2)  a. 
Potential  subjunctive,  474. 
Potior  (verb),  irreg.  forms  of,  227  a ; 
with  abl.,  419  ;  with  acc,  419  a  ; 
with  gen.,  419  b  ;  use  of  gerundive, 
cf.  550  a. 
Potior  (adj.),  compared,  170  (3). 
Potis,  155  (5). 
Pot  us,   active   meaning   of,   206  a, 

233  f  3. 
Prae,  with  abl.,  430 ;  meanings  of, 
561  (7) ;  intensive  force  in  comp., 
295  b  N  ;  quality  in  certain  comp., 
39  a  ;  case  with" verbs,  comp.  with, 

377. 
PraendminlT,  666  a;    abbreviations 

of.  666  d. 
Praesens,  declined,  154. 
Praeter,  with   acc,  429;   meanings 

of,  559  (20). 
Predicate,   309   (2);  nom.  or  acc, 
327  ff. ;    ajireeing  in  gender  and 
number  with  its  noun,  329  ;  adj., 
334;    dat.    instead  of,   331    (1); 
verbs    used   with,  328;    case  of, 
with  licet,  etc.,  531c;  with  com- 
plementary infin.,  329  h,  532  b; 
with  verbs  of  saying,  534  6 ;  with 
abl.  absol.,  422  d  (4). 
Prepositions,  74  (6) ;  with  acc  429 ; 
with  abl.,  430  ;  with  acc.  and  abl., 
431 ;  forms  in  comp.,  301  ;  mean- 
ings of,  558  ff. ;  inseparable,  302 ; 
use  as  adverbs,  298  a,  559  (foot- 
notes) ;  proclitic  in  accent,  36  ;  po- 
sition of,  589  ;  placed  after  their 
nouns,  431  d,e.  ,        . 

Present  stem,  209;  formation  m 
1st,  2d,  and  4th  conj.,  218  (1)  a; 
in  3d  conj.,  230.  .  .   .^, 

Present,  ten.se,  199,  200  (1),461; 
histor.  use.  466;  denoting  cus- 
tomary  action,  464;  of  general 
truths,  463  ;  of  extant  writers 
465;  with  dum,  468;  retained 
after  past  tense  in  indirect  dis- 
course" 516  ..;  with  mm  dudnm, 
etc.,  467;  iufin.,  used  how,  538, 


446 


INDEX. 


particip.  declined,  164;  use  of, 
543. 

Priapean  verse,  648  (2). 

Price,  abl  of,  408  ;  gen.  of,  371, 
372. 

Pridie,  with  gen.,  355  (5)  6 ;  with 
quam,  507. 

Primary,  suffixes,  255  a ;  tenses, 
200  (I). 

Primitive  words,  252  ;  examples  of, 
256. 

Principal,  parts  of  verbs,  220,  221  ; 
clauses,  314  (I). 

Pnncipidy  as  abl.  of  rime,  424  h. 

Prior,  compared,  170  (1);  primus 
for  "  first  part  of,"  442 ;  prior, 
refers  to  two  only,  161  d;  u^esof 
primus  with  subject,  object,  etc., 
compared,  557  i. 

Priustpiam,  moods  with,  505. 

Pro,  with  abl.,  430;  meanings  of, 
561  (8) ;  original  d  retained  in, 
302  (3) ;  with  al)l.  for  pred.  noun, 
331  (2) ;  quantity  of  compounds 
and  derivatives  ot,  306. 

Prof  esti  dies,  660  (6). 

Prohibed^  constr.  with,  413. 

Prohibitions,  472,  528,  529. 

Proinde,  accent  of,  35  b ;  use  of, 
570. 

Promising,  verbs  of,  tense  of,  infin. 
with,  533  (5). 

Pronouns,  74  (3);  pers.,  177  (1)  ; 
decl.,  178 ;  demons.,  177  (2) ;  decl., 
180;  uses  of.  181,  450;  rel.,  177 
(4);  decl.,  183,  184;  agreement 
of,  342  ff. ;  interrog.,  177  (5)  ; 
decl.,  183,  184;  indef,  177  (6); 
decl.,  183,  184;  intens.,  177  (3)  ; 
decl.,  182  ;  possess.,  177  (7) ;  decl., 
186;  patrial,  177  (8),  188;  com- 
pound, 185;  with  part,  gen.,  355 
(.5) ;  peculiarities  in  use  of,  443 
ff. ;  correl.,  187  ;  omitted  with  abl. 
absolute,  422  r. 

Pronunciation,  2  i.,  3  ff . ;  of  vowels, 
16;  of  (lipiithongs,  17;  of  conso- 
nant-i,  18. 

Prope,  with  ace,  429;  meanings  of, 
559  (21). 

Proper  nouns,  76  i. 

Propior,  compared,  170  (1) ;  propior, 
etc.,  with  ace,  390  (4)  ;  with  dat., 
389. 


Proportional  numerals,  286  (2). 

Propter,  with  ace,  429  ;  meanings 
of,  559  (22). 

Prosody.     See  Versification. 

Prosinceref  with  dat.  and  ace,  in 
diff.  senses,  378. 

Prosum,  215  d. 

Protasis,  N  iHjfore  476. 

Protraction  of  long  syllables  in 
certain  kinds  of  ver.xe,  613  a,  645 
ff. 

Piovidere,  with  dat.  and  ace  in  diff. 
senses,  378. 

Proviso,  clauses  of,  504. 

-}>se,  -pte,  enclitics,  35  a. 

Pudtt,  impersonal,  250  a ;  with 
gen.,  etc.,  364  (2),  365  6. 

Punishing;,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
367  a,  6. 

Pure  s\llablcs,  25  N  2. 

Purpose,  exj)res.sed  by,  m^  etc.,  with 
subj.,  482  (1)  ;  relative  clause, 
482  (2) ;  gerund  or  gerundive 
with  aa  or  causa,  551 :  fut.  part., 
545  a ;  supine  witli  verbs  ot  mo- 
tion, 554(2);  infin.  (poet.),  636; 
different  expressions  for,  com- 
l>ared,  556 ;  dat.  of,  385. 

Pythiambic  verse,  651,  652. 

Qua  .  .  .  qua,  563  (1)6. 

Quaero,  constr.  with,  394  (2)  a. 

Quae.' o,  old  form  of  quaiio,  249  (9). 

Quality,  denoted  by  adj.,  74  (2); 
gen.  of,  356;  abl.  of,  411. 

Quam,  withcompar.,  416  n,  c;  with 
superl.,  164  c  ;  with  ;>/u5,  tuinns, 
etc.,  416  c ;  with  subj.  clauses, 
498,  516  e  ;  with  infin.  clauses, 
516  c;  with  anfe,  505;  with  post, 
506;  with  other  expressions  of 
time,  507. 

Quamquam,  moods  w  iih,  479,  480  ; 
without  verb,  480  c;  meaning 
"and  yet,"  480  6. 

Qua ;/jji«f,* moods  with,  479. 480  ;  with- 
out verb,  480  c ;  meaning  "  how- 
ever much,"  480  a. 

Qxandoqnidem,  308. 

Qnanii,  as  gen.  of  price,  372. 

Quantity,  26;  of  vowels,  32, ff-;  of 
syllables,  27  ff. ;  naturaTr27  ;  by 
position,  2^r29  ;  general  rules  of, 
37-44;   special   rules  of,  45-53; 


INDEX. 


447 


nouns  and  adverbs  of,  with  part. 
<ron  ,  355  (1),  (2)  ;  hidden  quanti- 
ties, 37  N  2. 

Quasi-compounds,  300,  a,  o,  c. 

Quasi,  308;  mood  with,  481  (2); 
primary  tenses  with,  481  a. 

^ue,  enclitic,  35  a,  590  h ;  use  and 
position  of,  562  (2),  590  6;  at- 
tached to  last  word  of  a  series, 

564  a  ;  after  neque,  565  d ;  que 
.  .  .  que,  etc.,  563  a. 

Queis  and  qnis,  old  forms  for  quibus, 

184  d. 
Qued,  conjugated,  249  (7). 
Questions,    574    ff.  ;    double,   565, 

565  a,  580,  581;  indirect,  518; 
direct,  in  indirect  discourse,  516 
(2)  ;  short  direct,  quoted,  516  c. 

Qui,  declined,  184;  rel.,  interrog., 
and  indef.,  183,  184  h;  lis  abl., 
184,  184  c ;  as  connective,  451. 

Quia,  moods  with,  519  ;  non  quia, 

521. 

Quirumque,  declension  of,  185  ;  mood 

with,  501  6.  _ 

Quid  tibf  vis,  quid  huic  homini  facias, 

ete,  381  a  (cf.  also,  412. »)• 
Q.iHam,   declension   of,   185c;   use 

of,  459. 
Quidem,  308  ;  use  of,  572;  position 

of.  590  a. 

Quilibet,  use  of,  454;  verb  part  in- 
flected, 454  a. 

Qui/j,  with  subj.  of  result,  483  (3); 
with  verbs  of  hindering.  493  (2) 
(cf.  499)  ;  lion  quin,  521  ;  Nvith 
pres.   indie    equiv.  to  command, 

527  e. 

Quis,  declined,  184;  difference  be- 
tween noun  and  adj  forms,  184 
b;  disting.  from  uter,  460. 

Qnisnam,  185  b. 

Qnispiam,  185  c;  use  of,  458. 

Quisquam,  186  c ;  use  of,  454. 

Quisque,  185  c;  use  of,  18i/;  m  ap- 
]iosition,  325  d. 

Quisq'iis,  declension  of,  185 ;  mood 
wi'h,  501  6. 

Quiiis,  185  c  ;  use  of,  454  ;  verb 
part  inflected,  454  a. 

Quo.  as  adverb  of  direction,  187, 
355  (3);  with  subj.  of  purpose, 
482  (3)  ;  rion  quo,  521 ;  quo  .  .  . 
€0  (hoc,  etc.),  415. 


Quoad,  moods  with,  502  ff. 

Quod,    causal,    moods    with,   519; 

verb  of  saying  or  thinking  with, 

put  in  subj',  520;  restrictive,  500 

(2)c;   quod  si,  451   a;  meaning 

"  the  fact  that,"  540  (4). 
Quoius  and  quoi,  for  cuius  and  cui, 

185  N. 
Quom,  old  form  of  cum,  59  c,  509  ff. 
Quominus,  with  verbs  of  hindering, 

ete,  493  (2). 
Quoniam,  moods  with,  519. 
Qu'^ue,   distinguished    from    etiam^ 

573  ;  i.laee  of,  573,  590  a. 
Quot,  157  (I)  ;  correlative,  187. 
Quotation,  indirect,  514  ff. 
Quotiens,  157  (4). 


7?,  euphonic  changes  of,  69  (5),  71t 

72. 
Rostrum,  plur.  of,  135  (3). 
Ratione,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Ratus,  in  pres.  meaning,  544  a.    ^ 
-re,  ending  of  2d  pers.  sing,  passive, 

213(1),  223. 
Re-,  inseparable  prefix,  d  retained  in, 

302  (3). 
Reciprocal  relation,  how  expressed, 

449. 
Record  or,  cases  with,  365  a. 
Reckoning,  Roman  modes  of,  660 

ff. 
Reciisd,  constr.  with,  493  (2)  a. 
Redundant,  nouns,  134  (4);   adj., 

155  (7). 

Reduplication,  in  ]>res.  stem,  230 
6;  in  perC.  stem,  231  d;  of  com- 
iwunds,  231  d  (3) ;  quantity  of 
vowel.  231^(2).  . 

Refert,  with  gen.,  368  ff. ;  with  inra, 
tua,  etc.,  369  ;  with  other  con- 
structions, 369  /'. 

Reflexive,  pronoun,  179;  "^es  ot, 
445  ff. ;  in  indirect  discourse,  445 
a  ;  verbs,  193  (3)  a,  6. 

Regnum,  declined,  95. 

Reqo,  conjugated,  222,  223. 

Regular  verbs,  217  ff. ;  paradigms 
of,  222,  223. 

Relative,  adverbs,  mood  w-ith  482 
(2),  483  (2);  ])ronouns,  177  (4), 
183  ff  •  a-reetnent  of,  342  ff. ;  to 
express  "so-c^alled,"  452 ;  pe-son 
of,  323  ;  as  connectives,  451,  &yi , 


448 


INDEX. 


clauses  of  purpose,  482  (2)  ;    of 
result,  483  (2) ;  of  characteristic, 

500  (2);  as  protases,  500   (2)  c, 

501  c ;  restrictive,  500  (2)  c  ;  po- 
sition of,  596  (2) ;  in  infiu.,  516  d. 

Reuiiniscor,  case  with,  365. 

Hepeated  action,  how  eN])ressed, 
464;  as  general  con<li(i()ii,  477  d. 

Res,  declined,  132  ;  certain  uses  of, 
437  a  N,  439  (4)  o. 

Rests  in  verse,  613  h. 

Resolution  of  syllables  in  verse, 
618  (2). 

Restrictive  clauses,  500  (2)  c. 

Result,  clauses  of,  483 ;  substan- 
tive clauses  of,  493  ff.  ;  use  of 
tenses  in,  483  c,  524  a  (1)  ;  posi- 
tion of,  596  (2). 

Rhythm,  607  n. 

Rhythmical  sentenee,  599  a. 

-ri/nii.s,  superl.  in,  166. 

Jiilu,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  80  ii. 

-ro-,  noun  stems  in,  97  ;  diminutive 
formations  from,  259  (3)  ;  adj. 
stems  in,  143,  144. 

jRof/o,  with  two  ace.,  394  (2). 

Roots,  56,  57;  strong  and  weak 
forms  of,  253. 

yfrab-,  derivatives  from,  255  n. 

Rm,  defective.  111  n  2  ;  n^ed  like 
names  of  towns,  426  n. 

-rus,  fut.  part,  ending,  206,  211  b. 

S,  sound  of,  18 ;  feeble  sound  at  end 
of  words,  18  d ;  enphonie  chauLres 
of,  67,  69  (1).  69  (')).  69  (G)  iii., 
71  ;  elision  of  final,  in  early  verse, 
609  (I)  d ;  as  nom.  ending,' 90  (1) ; 
as  stem  ending,  105  ff.  ;  ace.  plur.  i 
ending,  90  (6).  j 

Saepe,  compared,  176  ;  qnantitv  of 
e  in,  46  (2).  '         I 

Sal,  quantity  of  vowel,  47  a,  103  a  ; 
gender  of,  120  (3). 

Salved,  conjugation  of,  249  (10)  6. 

Sane,  use  of,  572. 

Sapphic  verse,  646 ;  greater,  646  (2). 

Salafjo,  298  b. 

Satis,  with  part,  gen.,  355  (2). 

Sntisfacio,  298  b,  300  b. 

Satur,  144  N. 

Saturnian  verse,  642. 

Saying,     verbs    of,    constr.    with, 


490  (2),  515  ff.,  533  (1)  ;  passive 

with  pred.  nom.,  534,  534  a. 
Scanning,  611. 
Scazon,  628  f. 
Scidi,  231  (.3)  d. 
Scito,  scitote,  u>ed  for  the  wanting 

pres.,  227  e,  527  b. 
-SCO,  verb  ending  (inceptive)  230  e, 

289;    quantity    of   vowel   before, 

237  a. 
Se,  suus,  declension  of,  179,  186  ;  use 

of,  445  ff. 
Second,   decl.   of  nouns,  95  ff.  ;  of 

adj.,  143  ff. ;  conjugation.  217  ff., 

234. 
Secondary  tenses.     Sie  Historical. 
Secundiis,    formation    of,    281,    559 

(23)  ;  stciindiiin  sis  prep,  with  ace, 

429  ;  meanings  of,  559  (23). 
Secutus,  with  pres.  meaning,  544  a. 
Sed,  use  of,  566  (I). 
Sedeo,  sedo,  287  b. 
-sent,  old  pluj)er.  snbj.  eudiug,  228 1/. 
Semi-deponents,  196. 
Semi-vowels,  9  i  ,  10. 
Sendrius,  iambic,  623,  624. 
Saidti,  sendtuos,  as  gen.  forms,  128 

(1),  128(2),  131  F. 
Senex,  declension  of,  111  (1)  ;  com- 
pared, 172  (2). 
Sens,  participle  of  n'sp,  215  6. 
Sentence(s),  309  ff. ;    classification 

of,  311,315;  connecting  of  suc- 
cess ives,  597. 
Separation,  abl.  of,  413  ;  verbs  of, 

compounded  with  ab,  de,  etc.,  380. 
Sereno,  as  abl.  absol.,  422  c  f. 
Sestertius,  663. 
Short  syllable,  26.  27. 
-si  or  -sin,  ending  of  Greek  datives 

plural.  124. 
Si,  moods  with,  476  ff  ;  introducing 

indirect  ([uestions,  518  d. 
Sibilant,  10  ii. 
Sic,  187,  557  d. 
Sicubi,  308. 
Siein,  stea,  etc.,  215  c. 
Silentio,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
-sim,   old    perfect    subjunc.    ending, 

228  d. 
Siinilis,  compared,  167  ;  with  gen., 

360;  with  dat..  362  (4).  389. 
Simple  words,  251,  254  ff. ;  sentence, 

311  (1). 


INDEX. 


449 


Simul  with  abl.,  431^;  simul  .  .  . 
simul,   563   (I)  b;   simul  dc,  etc., 
469,  506. 
Sine,  with  abl.,  430 ;    meamngs  of, 

561  (9). 
Singular  number,  86;    for  plural, 
435,   436 ;    words   used  only   in, 
138  ;  words  lacking,  139. 
Mo,  abstract  ending,  272,  274(2). 
Siquidtm,  308,  572  c. 
Siqiiis,  185  c. 
Sis  for  si  vis,  242  a. 
Sive,  use  of,  565. 

-so,  old  future  ending,  228  d ;  eu- 
phonic for  to,  71,  232,  255  ff. 
Soled,  semi-deponent.  196;  soUtus  \n 
pres.   meanitig,  544  a  ;  soldo  with 
compar  ,  416  6. 
Solus,  declension  of,  145,  146. 
Sonants,  13  /. 
Sotadean  verse,  634. 
Sounds  of  the  letters,  15  ff. ;  vowels, 
16  ;  diphthongs,  17  ;  consonants, 

18. 

-sor,  ending  of    nouns   of    agcucy, 

270. 

-sorium,  noun  ending,  276  (5). 

Space,  ace.  of,  423. 

Sjii',    as    abl.    after    comparatives, 

416  b. 
Specification,  ace.  of,  398  ;  abl.  ot, 

412. 

Sp*'cus,  gender.  127. 

Spirants,  10  ii. 

Spondaic  verse,  614  (2). 

Sponte,  137  (4)  a. 

Stems,  54   ff  ;   in   a-,   91,  143  ff., 
217  ff. ;  in  0-,  95,  143  ff.  ;  in  i-, 
108  ff.,  150,  151;  in  i,  217  ^  ; 
ending   in   a  con.sonant,  100  ff., 
152  ff.,  217   ff.  ;  originally  in  s-, 
105,   106,   109;    in  n-,  99,    126, 
141  F  3,  217  ff.;  in  6-,  132,  217  ff.; 
three  special  stems  in  verb,  208  ff. ; 
formation  of  stems  in  1st,  2d.  and 
4th  conj  ,  218  ;  of  pres.  stem  in  3d 
conj.,  219(1),  230  ;  of  perf.  stem 
in   3d    conj.,  219    (1),    231  ;    of 
perf.  part,  stem  in  3d  conj.,  219 
(2).  232  ;  derivative  stems,  255  a. 
St^ti,  stiti,  231  d,231  d  {I). 
Strong  and   weak   forms  of    roots, 

253. 
Strophe  or  stanza,  612. 


Suadeo,  with  dat.,  376. 

Sub,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431  ;  mean- 
ings of,  560  (2) ;  form  in  comp., 
301  (9) ;  lessening  force  in  comp., 
295  b  N. 

Subject,  310  (1 )  ;  nom.,  316 ; 
omitted,  316  a,  317,  318;  ace, 
401,  530  ;  of  histor.  infin.,  530  a  ; 
position  of,  596  n  3. 

Subjective  genitive,  353  (1)  ;  adj. 
or   pos>ess.   ])ron.    used   for,  358 

(1).(2)-  _       , 

Subjunctive  mood,  198  (2), and  note 

before     472 ;      in     independent 
clauses,  472-475  ;  hortatory,  472  ; 
potential,    474;    optative,    473; 
dubitative,    475;     m    dependent 
clauses,   476  ff. ;    in    conditional 
clauses,  476,  477;   in  concessive 
clauses,  with  e/sF,  etc.,  478;  with 
quamvis,  etc.,  479,  480;  in  coni- 
parative  clauses,  with  tamquam  si, 
velut  si,  etc.,  481 ;  wiih  quam,  498, 
516  e  ;  in  clauses  of  purpose,  482  ; 
of  result,  483  ;  substantive  clauses, 
484  ff. ;  with  verbs  of  fearing,  492  ; 
in  relative  clauses  (characteristic), 
500.    501 ;    without    ut,  491 ;  in 
temporal   clauses   with  anteqnam, 
etc.,  505  ;    with  dum,  etc.,   502, 
503;    with  }>ostquam,J^OQ\   with 
cum,  509  ff.  ;   with  ubi,  etc.,  506, 
508 ;  in  clauses  of  proviso,  504 ; 
in  causal  clauses  with  quod,  etc., 
519  ;  with  non  quo,  etc..  521  ;  of 
died,    pHto,    etc.,     introducing    a 
cause,  520;  in  indirect  questions, 
518 ;  in  indirect  discourse,  514  ff. ; 
giving  other  people's  ideas,  522  ; 
by   attraction    (so    called),   523; 
tenses   of,   472  c,  473  a.  474  a, 
475  a,  476  (2)  b,  477  a,  b,  481  a, 
482  b,  483  c,  499  d,  524,  525. 
Subordinate   clauses,  314  (2)  ;   in 
indirect   discour.-e,   515   (1);   re- 
tained  in   indicative,   516  7;    m 
contrary   to  fact  conditions,  499 
d,  e  ;  position  of,  596. 
Substantive    clauses    with    ut,  ne, 
etc.,    484  ff. ;     with    quod,    etc., 

540  (4)  ;  with  the  infin.,  515  ft., 
531,  533;  as  indirect  questions, 
518 ;    different   kinds  compared, 

541  ff. 


450 


INDEX. 


Subter,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431 ; 
meanings  of,  560  (3). 

Subtractive   expressions   in   uume 
rals,  161  e,  162  (3). 

Sul.    See  se. 

Suffixes,  56;  primary  and  secon- 
dary, 255  a  ;  lists  of  common,  255 
(1)*  (2) ;  words  without,  254. 

Sum,  conjugated,  215 ;  with  gen., 
357;  with  dat.,  384;  in  perfect 
tenses  of  passive,  211  ;  in  peri- 
phrastic conjugations,  229 ;  with 
adj.  governing  8ub>t.'intive  clause 
with  ut,  etc.,  494  a,  497 ;  indica- 
tive in  conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
477  c  (cf.  474  d). 

Supe/lex,  111  (4). 

Super,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431 ; 
meanings  of,  560  (4). 

Superior,  compared,  170  (2);  high- 
est part,  top  of,  442. 

Superlative,  164  (3)  ;  a})ecial  u.so 
of,  164  (3)  b,  c,  442 ;  formed  wi  h 
mdxime,  173 ;  wanting,  172. 

Supines,  205 ;  mechanical  similar- 
ity of  basis  with  perf.  and  fiit. 
part.,  211  b;  uses  of  ace,  554; 
to  denote  purpose,  554  (2)  ;  uses 
of  abl.,  555  ;  (juantity  of  diss\  1- 
labic,  51. 

Supra,  w\th  ace,  429;  meanings  of, 
559  (24). 

Surds,  13  ii. 

Sus,  declined,  102. 

Suns.    See  se. 

Swearing,  verbs  of,  tense  of  infin. 
with,  533  (.')). 

Syllables,  rules  for  dividing,  19  ff. ; 
quantity  of,  28  ff . ;  of  vowels  in 
final,  45  ff. ;  in  certain  others,  51, 
52  ;  last  either  long  or  short  in 
verse,  610 ;  in  early  verse,  636  ff . 

Synaeresis,  609  (2).' 

Synaloepha,  609  (1). 

Synapheia,  609  (5). 

Syncope,  63  ii.,  659  (29). 

Synecdochical  ace,  398  a. 

Syntax,  2  iv  ,  309  ff. 
Systole,  609  (1)  6  n. 

T,  sound  of,  18;  euphonic  changes 
of,  65,  6G  iii.,  iv.,  69  i.,  ii.  (2),  iii., 
71. 

-ta,  abstract  noun  ending,  273  (2). 


Taedet,  impers.,  250  a;  with  gen., 
etc,  364  (2).  365  6. 

Tarn,  187,  557  d. 

Tametsl,  478. 

Tamen,  use  of,  569  (2). 

Tarnquam,  481. 

Tauti,  as  gen.  of  price,  372. 

Tantum  ahest  ut,  499  c. 

-ids,  noun  endin^^  109,  273  (2). 

Teaching,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
394  (2),  407  b. 

Temperdre,  with  dat.  and  ace.  in 
diff.  senses,  378. 

Temporal,  numerals,  286  (3) ; 
clauses,  502  ff. ;  uses  of  tenses  in, 
524. 

Tendency,  adj.  of,  261,  267. 

Ten8e(s),  199;  primary  and  se- 
condary, 200;  u^es  of,  461  ff. ;  of 
sul>junc.,  524  ff. ;  of  imper.,  627  6, 
c;  of  infin.,  538,  539;  of  parti- 
cip.,  543  ff. ;  tabli?  of,  formed  from 
the  three  stems,  212. 

Tenns,  wiih  abl,  430;  with  gen., 
431  /;  meanings  of,  561  (10); 
placed  after  its  n()un.  431  d. 

-/er,  adverbs  in,  174,  557  a;  nouns 
of  agency  in,  270  a. 

Terrd  mnrique,  426  a. 

Terund,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Tete,  179  c. 

Tetrameter,  dactylic,  616,  654  (4) ; 
anapaestic,  630  (2). 

Th,  aspirate,  11  iii. ;  sound  of,  18  5^. 

Thematic  vowel,  217  6. 

Thesis  and  arsis,  607. 

Thinking,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
533  (1). 

Third,  decl.  of  nouns.  99  ff. ;  of  adj. 
148  ff. ;    conjug.,217  ff. 

Thousands,  how  expressed,  161  A, 
162  d. 

Threatening,  verK«<  of,  case  with, 
376;    tense  of  infin.,  533  (5). 

4in,  -ties,  -tid,  -tiuin,  abstract  end- 
ings, 272  ff. 

Tigris,  declension  of,  124 ;  gender 
of,  120  (4). 

-tilis,  adjective  ending,  261. 

Time,  adj.  of,  264;  adverbs  of, 
187  ;  constructions  of,  423  ff. ;  id 
aetdtis,  etc.,  398  6;  abl.  absol. 
denoting,  422  ;  concrete  nouns  in 
expressions    of,    432;    mode    of 


INDEX. 


451 


reckoning,  660;    table   of,   661; 
clauses  of,  502  ff. 
Timire,     cases     with,    378;   moods 

with,  492,  532  a. 
"  Too  "   or  "  rather,"  expressed  by 

compar.,  164(3)  a. 
-for,  ending  of  nouns  of  agency,  270. 
Joriuvi,  noun  ending,  276  (5). 
Tot,  187. 

Totns,  187.  187  F  1 . 
Totus,  decleusion  of,   145,  146;  of 

place,  426  c 
Towns,  gtndcr  of  names  of,  81  11., 

loc.  constr.  of,  426  (2). 
4r.,  -tri-,  stems  in,  103  e,  108  b. 
Tranquillo,  as  abl.  absol.,  422  c  F. 
Trans,  with  ace,  429  ;   meanings  of, 
559    (25) ;    form    in    comp.,   301 
(10);   constr.   with   verbs    comp. 
with,  394  (3). 
Transitive  verbs,  190. 
Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 
Trts,  declension  of,  160. 
Triliemivieris,  605  d. 
Trimeter,  iambic,  623,  624,  627. 
Urina,  -trinuin,  noun  endings,  276  (2) 
4ris,  adjective  ending,  285. 
-trijc,    ending     of     fern,     nouns 

agency,  270. 
Trochaic  vcr.se,  618  ff. 
-/;u;»,  noun  ending,  258. 
TH,  declined,  178;   tdte,  179  c. 
-turn,  noun  ending,  276  (1). 
Turn  .  .  .  turn,  563  (1)  b. 
TuinuUu,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  6. 
Tunc  and  nunc,  187  F  2. 
-tudo,  abstract  ending,  272,  273  (3). 
•tus,  noun  ending  in  4th  declension, 
274   (3);    adj.    ending,  256   (1); 
perf.  part,  ending,  214. 
•4us,  ending   in  3d   deck-nsion,  273 

Tuvs,  186 :   tud,  with  refert   and  jn- 
terest,  369. 

U,  .sound  of,  16  ;  after  g,  q,  or  s,  18 
6;  euphonic  changes  of,  59,  63; 
aflTmitv  for  1,  59  a ;  not  allowed 
after  r  or  qu,  59  b,  c;  quantity  of, 
final,  46;  penult,  in  verbs,  225; 
parasitic,  64 ;  representing  oe,  60  ; 
retained  in  certain  words,  59  d. 

-u-  stems,  of  nouns,  99,  126;  of  adj., 
141  F  3 ;  of  verbs,  217  a. 


of 


CM,  moods  with,  506,  508;  perfect 

tense  with,  469. 
Ubicurnqiie,    ubinam,    ulique,    ubivis, 

308. 
-ubus,   dat.  and  abl.  ending  in  4th 

dec!.,  129. 
-ulcus,  in  diminutives,  259  (4)  6. 
'{Uis,  adjective  ending,  262. 
Udus,  dtcletision  of,  145,  146 ;  use 
_of,  455. 

Ulterior,  compared,  170  (1) ;  {Utimus, 
Jot  *'  last  part  of,"  442. 
(JUid,  with  ace,  429  ;  meauiugs  of, 

559  (26). 
-ulus,  -a,  -uiu,  noun  and  adj.  ending, 

257  ;  diminutives  in,  259  (2). 
-urn,  gen.  plur.  ending  in  3d  decl, 

116. 
-dm,  gen.  plur.  ending  in  1st  and  2d 

decl..  93  d,d7  (7). 
Dncia,  662. 
'Undam,   -undtts,    for   later  -endnm, 

-endus,  in  gerund  and  gerundive, 

227  (J. 
j  Unthematic  verbs,  239. 
I  [Jnus,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  plu- 
I      ral  use  of,  161  a. 
Utiusquisque,  460  d  ;  unumquidquid , 

in  Plautus,  185  c. 
-uo,  verbs  in,  287  (especially  a), 
-ura,  noun  ending,  274  (4). 
-mid,  desiderative  verb  ending,  290. 
-irns,  in  fut.  part.,  211  b,  214. 
-us,  ending  ot  noims  and  adj.  m  2d 
decl.,  95  ;  in  4th  decl.,  126  ;  quau- 
titv  of  final,  50. 
-MS,  in  nouns  of  3d  declension,  102, 
_i06d,  273(2). 
Usque,  with  ace,  431  g. 
CZsus,  with  abl.,  417.  . 

Ut  =  as,  187  ;  explanatory  or  limit- 
ing, 557  /';  interrogative  =  how, 
187  •  =  when,   moods   with,  506, 
508  N  1;  in  clauses  of  purpose, 
482  (1);  of    result,  483  (1);  sub- 
stantive clauses,  484  ff. ;   conces- 
sive, 479,  480 ;  in  wishes,  473  ;  ut 
..  .'it<  1,557  e. 
Uter,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  dis- 
tinguished from  qnis,  460. 
Uterque,  146  a ;  distincuished  from 
^quis,4JdO;  from  am/>o,  460  a. 
Dtilis,  cases  with,  390  (1). 
Utl    SeeUt. 


452 


INDEX. 


Utinam,  308  ;  in  wishes,  473,  473  h. 
Otor,  with  al)l.,  419  ;  with  ace.,  419 

a ;  gerundive  use  of,  550  a. 
Utrum  .  .  .  an,  580. 
-utus,  adj.  ending,  280. 
-uus,  adj.  ending,  283. 

V,  sound  of,  18 ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  68,  69  (6). 

Vacdre,  with  dat.,  381  a. 

Vae,  interjec,  583;   with  dat.,  391 
(3). 

Value,  gen.  of.     See  Gen.  of  Price. 

Vds,  vdsis,  105,  107. 

-ve,  enclitic,  35  a,  590  6 ;  use  of,  565  6. 

Vel,  use  of,  565  ;  meaning  "even," 
565  c. 

Velim  and  vellem,  in  expressions  of 
wishing,  473  c,  491,  527  '/. 

Velut,  veluti,  velut  si,  moods  with, 
481. 

Venit  in  mentem,  353  d. 

Verba  seutiendi  et  decldrandi,  533  (1 ). 

Verbal,  nouns  and  adj.,  252  a;  ace. 
with,  399;  dat.  with,  391  (2). 

Verbs,  74  (4),  189  ff . ;  moods  of, 
197,  198;  tenses  of,  199,200; 
stems  of,  208  ff.,  217  ;  forma- 
tion of  stems  of,  218  ff ,  230 
ff. ;  conjugation  of  regular,  222, 
223  ;  irreg.  (nnthcraatic),  239  ff. ; 
trans,  and  intrans.,  189-191  ; 
depon.,  195;  semi-depon.,  196; 
principal  parts  of,  220,  221 ;  im- 
personal, 250;  defective,  249  ;  de- 
rivative, 287  ff.  ;  componnd,  298; 
inceptive  (inchoative),  289  ;  fre- 
quentative (iterative)  and  inten- 
sive, 288;  intensive  (meditative), 
288  (4) ;  desiderative,  290 ;  di- 
minutive, 291  ;  lists  of  irregularly 
formed,  in  1st  conj.,  233  ;  in  2(1 
conj.,  234;  in  4th  conj.,  238;  lists 
of,  in  3d  conj.,  235-237  ;  of  depon., 
in  3d  conj.,  236;  agreement  of, 
316  ff. ;  person  of,  with  rel.,  323  ; 
pos^ition  of,  595 ;  last  place  but 
one  in  sentence,  599  c. 

VerhuTu  infinitum,  202  (2)  N. 

Vereor,  constr.  with,  492,  492  6; 
veritus,  in  pres.  meaning,  544  a. 

Vero,  use  of,  567,  572  ;  position  of, 
590  a  ;  as  ablative  with  compara- 
tive, 416  6. 


Verse,    600  ;    different    kinds    of, 
603  ff.  ;  names  in  -drius,  605  (2). 
Verse-accent,  606. 
Versification,  600  ff. 

Versu,  without  prep.,  426  d. 

Verum,  use  of,  566  ( 1 )  ;  verum  etiam, 
etc.,  563  (2). 

Vescor,  with  ah!.,  419;  with  ace., 
419  a  ;  geruudive  constr.  of,  550 
a. 

Vcsperi,  136  a. 

Vester,  declension  of,  186 ;  vestruin 
and  vestri,  178  f  ;  not  used  for 
tuus,  443  a 

Veto,  mood  with,  533  (3). 

Vetiis,  deelensiou  of,  154 ;  superla- 
tive of,  166  (I. 

[Vicis],  declined,  137  (4). 

Video,  constr.  with.,  533  (1),  543  b. 

Vir,  declined,  95. 

i  injo,  declined,  104. 

Virus,  gender  of,  96  (2). 

Vis,  declined,  110. 

Vocative,  88  (5) ;  like  nom.  except 
sometimes  in  2d  decl.,  90  (3)  ;  ac- 
cent of,  in  nonns  in  -ivs,  97  (o)  a  ; 
nses  of,  402  ;  position  of,  592  ; 
not  properly  a  case,  402  n. 

Voice,  193  ff.  ;  middle  voice,  193 
a  ;  impersonal  use  of  jiassive  of 
intrans.,  194,  387. 

Valgus,  gender  of,  96  (2). 

Void,  conjugated,  242  ;  constr. 
with,  487,  489  ff.,  533  (3). 

Voluntary  agent,  ahl.  of,  406;  dat. 
of,  383. 

Vds.    See  Td. 

Voti,  as  gen.  of  penalty,  367  a. 

Vowels,  4  i,  5;  clas>iHed,  5  f  2 
sounds  of,  16 ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  58  ff. ;  quantity  of  final,  45  ff. 
of    certain   other,   37  ff.,    51-53 
225,   237  a  ;  stem  vowel  length 
ened  in  perfect,  231  c  ;  long  vowels 
shortened  through  loss  of  accent, 
44  a  (2)  ;  other  long  vowels  short- 
ened, 62,  635  ff. 

Vowel  stems,  of  nouns,  89,  91,  95, 
108  ff.,  126,  132  ;  of  adj.,  141  ff., 
150-152  ;  of  verbs,  217  a,  240, 
241,  248. 

Want,  abl.  of,  414 ;  gen.  with  cer- 
tain verbs  of,  414  a,  6. 


INDEX. 


453 


Warning,  verbs  of,  cases  with,  366, 
367  c;  moods  with,  487,  489  ff. 

Way  by  which,  abl.  of,  407  c. 

W^eights,  Roman,  662,  664. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  80  ii. 

Wish,  subjunc.  of,  473 ;  with  re/m, 
etc.,  473  r. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  moods  with, 
486,  489,  491,  533  (.3). 

Words,  division  into  syllables  19  ff.; 
formation  of,  251  ff.  ;  ])rimitive 
and  derivative,  252;  compound. 
251  (3),  294  ff.  ;  order  of,  584  ff.  ; 
neuter  when  treated  as  sucii,  82  ii. ; 
nominative  when  so  treated,  349 
(2) ;  without  suffixes,  254. 


Writers,  Latin,  list  of  the  principal, 
668. 

X,  double  consonant,  9  iii.  ;  equiva- 
lent to  cs  or  (/*•,  3  e,  12  a. 

y,  onlv  in  Greek  words,  3  ;  sound 

of,  18. 
Year,  how  expressed,  161  i.,  424  d, 

660  (6). 
Yes  and  no,  how  expre.-^sed,  582. 
-ys,   nouns    in,    124;    quantity   of, 

final,  50. 

Z,  only  in  Greek  words,  3  ;  equiva- 
lent to  ds,  12  a  ;  sound  of,  18. 


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